BEARDED MEN IN PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICA
(AMERICAN INDIAN RACES)
WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR
The True Interpretation of the Aztec Calendar Cosmogony and Native American Mythology Barbados Men in Pre-Columbian America Ancient Science and the Old World and American Zodiacs
Published by Editorial Kier S.A.
DICK EDGAR IBARRA GRASSO
BEARDED MEN IN PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICA
(AMERICAN INDIAN RACES)
FIRST EDITION
EDITORIAL KIER s.a. Santa Fe Av. 1260
(1059) Buenos Aires - Argentina
sometimes not so small. That is why, in anthropological studies made on series of ancient skulls and skulls of living natives (carefully choosing the most mongoloid individuals) they can be easily discarded, since they disappear in the final mean terms arrived at thanks to the anthropological procedure of taking the mean terms.
Here we will proceed in a different way. We will take those minorities especially into account and, not only that, but we will also cast doubt - complete doubt - on the assumption that the American Indians are exclusively a lateral branch of the Mongoloid stock, even denying many of the Mongoloid traits that are attributed to them.
We contend that, in large part, the following is true. From childhood, we are taught that American Indians are of Mongoloid origin. Then, when we see one or more Indians, we unconsciously look for traits that indicate that origin. Some appear, but other times they do not; consequently, we think that it is, at least, a mestizo. Thus, we are reassured. If we get to see an indigenous person - for indigenous that in their culture - with beard and mustache, like those represented in the old sculptures, we classify them as white or, at least. mestizo coming from a mischief made by some traveler or missionary. We speak at this point, of the readers and not from the personal point of view, for we have already come to distinguish that quite well.
The following is an illustrative anecdote. We were having lunch once in a restaurant in Rosario, after our university work, together with a fellow professor who had devoted himself to the study of the Toba people. The waiter who served us had frankly Caucasoid features, of brown color, but our colleague looked at him for a moment and said: - You are a Toba. The waiter denied it and our companion let the time pass, until it was time to get up. Then, he said goodbye to the waiter raising his right hand in a special way and saying a word in toba that we do not remember. The waiter automatically raised his hand in the same way and repeated the same word.
2. Who are indigenous people?
How many Indians -that we could more or less consider pure- exist today in America? When we began our studies, more than half a century ago, it was assumed that there were scarcely fifteen million; some years later, we developed the subject in a monograph and said thirty million. At present, several authors presume that there are those thirty million - more than once, looked at with horror - but we suppose that the indigenous have multiplied and that there must be about sixty million, without counting the mestizos, which would be a little more.
Naturally, it happens that they have reproduced. Their reproduction is not inferior to that of the whites who inhabit the continent; but on this point we must be quite clear.
We all know -it is assumed to be well known- that the indigenous people are dying out. In Argentina, for example, there are little more than 100,000 left, so that our previous words sin\sin will no doubt have seemed absurd to more than one reader. But the fact is that we refer to one thing, while the others allude to something else. Does a civilized Indian (sic) cease to be an Indian? We think not. Those readers will suppose so.
Some time ago, we consulted the Buenos Aires Telephone Guide and searched it for indigenous surnames, especially of Araucanian origin. In a couple of hours, we found eleven of them. There were doctors, lawyers, an engineer, etc. We suppose that there are many more, but to find them requires more time and patience than we had at that time. Undoubtedly, some of these individuals will consider themselves white; others are proud of their indigenous origin.
In the remaining indigenous groups -especially those of the center, Northwest and Cuyo- the indigenous surnames have disappeared, generally replaced by Spanish surnames, when they became Christian shortly after the beginning of the conquest, but they are still indigenous, although sometimes they have some blood in them.
European. As for the Indians of the Chaco, in general they keep (as do the Araucanians) their own surnames, often "disguised" to resemble a similar Spanish surname. Not from the Chaco, but from Bolivia, we know many similar facts. For example, the indigenous people who become "civilized" and have Quichua or Aymara surnames, disguise them with a similar Spanish one. Thus, the beautiful indigenous surname Quispe, which means "Free", is transformed into Gisbert.
In Jujuy, Salta and Catamarca we did some tests like the following. We stood in front of a church, the Post Office or another busy public building and watched the people entering (twenty years of living in Bolivia, in contact with the indigenous people, had given us good experience). We counted and classified the people entering these places. In the center of the city, naturally, European-type individuals were in the majority, although not very large. In the barrios, the percentage of people who could be classified as indigenous and mestizos, generally, did not go below seventy percent; but they were civilized, dressed like us, etc. and, therefore, were considered as white, in statistics and censuses. The same thing happened in Corrientes, where we were several times, with the addition that there a great part of that population conserves its language, although it speaks Castilian. Now, according to the census of Corrientes, there is not a single indigenous person.
According to our experience and to what we know of the country, we believe that about ten percent of the Argentine population can be considered of practically pure indigenous origin and that the individuals classifiable as "mestizos" are at least as many. Moreover, they are the well known "cabecitas negras", as the porteños say. How many of them are there in Buenos Aires?
The same - and much more - happens in the remaining countries of America. In Uruguay, where the indigenous people are supposed to have disappeared a century ago, we have counted more than a hundred of them (then we suspended the count) in the northern departments. In Mexico, where officially only those who speak exclusively an indigenous language are counted as Indians, we have counted more than a hundred of them.
( sin\sin know Spanish, since those who know it are considered "mestizos") the "pure" Indians, according to the censuses, are scarcely ten percent of the population. Nevertheless, they are the majority, however civilized they may be. We remember the astonished exclamation of a distinguished Spanish professor -who was Spain's Minister of Education during the Republic- when speaking on the subject, she said: -Yes, Mexicans always seemed to me to be Indians who spoke and behaved like Spaniards!
Another anecdote. We were at a Congress of Argentine Archaeology. An author presented a paper on the present population of northern San Juan and said that it was purely Spanish in origin, with no indigenous features; it was made up of cattle ranchers, because the area did not allow for more than a minimal agriculture of small vegetable gardens, on the banks of a stream. They had milk, but only the children and the sick drank it; they did not make cheese. We asked the author how he identified indigenous traits. If, for him, an individual of indigenous origin should wear a loincloth and carry some feathers on his head. Indeed, it is not conceivable that any population of pure Spanish origin - Galician, moreover, as it was pretended - had the possibility of milk in abundance, did not drink it and especially did not make cheese; that is a trait that cannot be lost. The rejection of cheese is a general indigenous trait. The Indians make them frequently, but they do not eat them, they sell them....
3. Exotic minorities in a supposedly mongoloid grouping
Later on we will examine the classifications on the race or races to which the American Indians belong, according to various authors, especially those who diverge the most. As a whole, we will see how they maintain for the American Indian population, a primordially mongoloid origin; for certain authors it is total, while others admit small minorities coming from other racial groups.
Ulloa's phrase is well known: Seen one Indian they have all been seen, so similar are they to each other. It is evident that, to say that, Ulloa had looked more at the culture than at the physical features of the natives; besides, Ulloa only traveled through a small part of the continent, so he did not see all the Indians. Would he have said the same if he had seen together a Patagonian, a bearded and bald Guayaquí from Paraguay and a Motilón pygmy from Colombia?
More recent anthropologists tend to insist a great deal on the Mongoloid characteristics of the natives, but what are the Mongoloid traits to which they refer? There is no general one - among those so called - just as there is no trait common to all Caucasoids. We can say, by way of example - others have already said it - that except for some exceptional skulls, it is impossible to distinguish a Mongoloid skull from another Caucasoid skull; the same happens with the color of the skin of the so-called Mongoloids, since it is usually no different from the color of the so-called "Caucasoids" on the shores of the Mediterranean, and this is shown in several anthropological maps that we have, where this characteristic is marked.
However, the anthropological feature most frequently cited as Mongoloid by anthropologists is the shape and color of the hair.
It is evident that these anthropologists "grab the hair" to support a theory a priori not very tenable. The maps on the color and the form (section and smoothness) of the hair seem to give reason to the authors who tell us that, because they present us uniformly to the whole Asian mongoloid group and to the American Indians as possessors, exclusively, of black hair, circular section, thick and smooth, no matter how long they are.
Is this true? We have been twenty years in Bolivia, in intimate contact with all kinds of indigenous people, in addition to the indigenous people we know in Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Brazil, Mexico and other countries. We can say that it is not so. It is only an application of the method of the "meta-terms".
The divergent minorities that appear are eliminated when the majority is taken into account. The divergent minorities that appear are eliminated when the majority is taken into account. The whole anthropological procedure we are talking about consists of basing oneself on the "majority" and discarding, ignoring them, the minorities.
There is a high percentage of indigenous people -in Bolivia it is not less than a third of the population- with dark brown and slightly wavy hair. This last feature means that their hair does not have circular section, but oval; there are even some Indians - undoubtedly Indians - who have reddish hair yy , personally, we have found in Bolivia two pre-Columbian indigenous skulls, with traces of reddish hair. We have also seen in the Archaeological Museum of San Pedro de Atacama, Chile, several hundred mummies and especially mummified heads, which preserved more or less intact their hair, mostly brown and wavy hair. The same appears in collections from the Peruvian coast.
Even in pre-Columbian indigenous paintings there are blond hair. From the Peruvian coast several mummies and heads with this characteristic are known, but they try to leave them aside, saying that with the time they have discolored and that originally they had the black color. Contrary to this assumption, there are abundant references from old chroniclers and travelers from the time of the conquest, where we are told that they found Indians with reddish and blond hair, even with blue eyes. To get rid of the problems that these data entail, we simply proceed to ignore them.
Typically thick and black hair has, no doubt, most of the redskins and the natives of the Chaco and Patagonia, among whom brown hair is very scarce; consequently, their physiognomy should be of the mongoloid type and also their legs should be relatively short. Unfortunately, these natives behave in an ungrateful manner, for their legs correspond to the long forms of mankind and their faces, instead of being flattened - that is, leaning forward - are leaning sideways, which gives them a physiognomy that is not very long.
europoid. That typical face was that of the indigenous Toba man at the restaurant in Rosario.
Other Indians do have a flattened face, which is generally considered typical of Mongoloids; in addition, they have short legs, the Mongolian fold (which is usually accompanied by straight eyes, not oblique as is assumed) and a somewhat flattened nose, not very wide, although the most common among Indians is to have a somewhat protruding nose.
We will "pin" a little bit of the nose, as others "pin" the hair. It is common to represent Indians with a strong aquiline nose. This comes from a North American influence in the representation of the Prairie Indians. Do the Prairie Indians have this type of nose? American anthropologist Clarck Wissler makes a good critique. He says that this is an exception among them, that among the Dacoits this trait is most prevalent, but even so, this trait is not found in more than ten percent of the Dacoit population. In turn, this trait is typical of the chiefs and the indigenous ruling class, not of the people. What is certain is that it was used to characterize them.
Is the hooked, curved nose Mongoloid? No; it is one of the most anti-Mongoloid nose types known. It is typical of the Caucasoid peoples of Anterior Asia, from Anatolia to Persia. It is often considered the typical nose of the Jewish "race", but in its origin it is characteristic of the ancient Hittites and Assyrians (although it would be pre-Hittites and pre-Assyrians), as presented in their sculptures. The Hittites are the Hittites of the Bible, who have since mixed with the Phoenicians and Hebrews.
In the regions of high American culture, we find that in Mexico there are numerous representations of moustachioed, bearded and moustachioed men. The presence of the beard is one of the most characteristic features of the Mexican god Quetzalcoatl, practically since the time of Christ, in the civilization of Teotihuacan. The same happens in the Mayan region and among the most ancient Olmecs. In the Peruvian coastal region, we have the very ancient Mochica civilization, which has given us several
dozens of thousands of huacos, sculptural portraits of human heads, known to all. The faces represented in them correspond to three very different human types: Caucasoid, with strong curved noses, which are the absolute majority and never present in their eyes the mongoloid fold (they must have had beards and mustaches, but they shaved them, as evidenced by abundant razors of Phoenician-Greek type that have been found); others, with the face flattened forward, would correspond to Mongoloid types, with these features in sight (they are a not very abundant minority) and, finally, a small minority of individuals with a frankly negroid face, wide and flat nose and other usual features.
Naturally, these huaco-portraits represent mainly individuals of the indigenous ruling class, therefore, it is possible that the real proportion of Caucasoid type individuals among the Mochicas did not exceed the ten percent that Wissler indicates for the Dacotas. What matters is their existence -whether they are minorities or not- for which reason we have to explain their origin, since they cannot be confused with the Mongoloid types coming across the Bering Strait.
4. Asian origin, via the Bering Strait
The Asian origin following the route of the Bering Strait is the most widely accepted as regards the origin of the American Indians. Naturally, this origin is considered - by most researchers - as part of the great Mongoloid race.
As for the antiquity of this Asiatic migration, a few dozen years ago only one migration was admitted, which would have given rise on the American continent to all the varieties of indigenous people that we find. At the present time, several migrations are usually admitted, but the various authors who maintain this are not very much in agreement among themselves as to which and how many there were.
Also a few dozen years ago, that single migration was supposed to be no more than ten years old.
or, at most, fifteen thousand years. More recently, that age has multiplied and the analyses made with Carbon 14 were the main reason that forced to accept a greater age of origin. These analyses give us an antiquity that slightly exceeds forty thousand years, for some deposits in California and neighboring islands, but even this figure is no longer satisfactory. We were the first to support -more than thirty years ago- an antiquity prior to the beginning of the last glacial period, which at that time was estimated at about seventy thousand years. Now there is an author who speaks of between seventy thousand and one hundred thousand years.
The figure of forty thousand years B.C. is sufficient for us to deal with what we wish. At that time, in the Old World, there did not yet exist the human form known as Homo sapiens sapiens, which appeared very shortly afterwards. There was, instead, the form known as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, with a culture typical of the Middle Paleolithic. The earlier form had the culture of the Upper Paleolithic. Let us clarify that, when the neanderthaloid forms are called Homo neanderthalensis - without inserting the sapiens - they are considered as a human species prior to the present one; when the sapiens is inserted, it is considered a specialized racial form of the present species to which we belong.
Regarding the Americas, it was taken for granted that there were no sites with lithic material from the Middle Paleolithic; it was argued that the oldest inhabitants of the Americas were all from the Upper Paleolithic (it was even claimed that they were exclusively from the Neolithic), and that the entire American population belonged to the sapiens sapiens form. Now we know of many dozens of sites in which all the material found and studied belongs fully to the Middle Paleolithic, and it even seems that it belongs to the late ancient Paleolithic. This reveals the existence of Neanderthaloid human forms in indigenous America.
Let us clarify the following. In general, even a large number of anthropologists consider that the "Neanderthal race" was an earlier human form than ours, very crude and primitive, provided with huge protrusions above the eyes (supraorbital torus). The truth is that we have seen some skulls of
The skeletons of the Patagonian Indians (and of living European individuals) provided with a torus of this type, which undoubtedly surpasses that of the skulls of Neanderthals that we observe in the museums of Paris. It is also supposed that they had very short and thick legs, but in the findings of complete skeletons of that type, made in France, there are more than one with very long legs.
Indeed, there are at least two well-characterized Neanderthaloid human types, i.e., different from each other. We refer to Europe and nearby regions. The first and oldest is the so-called generalized Neanderthal; its features, torus, etc., are never exaggerated, which is why there are numerous authors who suppose that the full Homo sapiens sapiens descends directly from them, without going through the next form (chronologically, the following one), which is called classic Neanderthal, with larger skulls and strong features as well as developed supraorbital torus.
According to us, both forms are present in pre-Columbian America, especially the first, which seems to be quite abundant; the second is relatively scarce and appears very mixed, in all the skulls we know. Unfortunately, up to now, all the human remains that we know of one or the other form do not correspond to their levels of origin or the first period of their presence on the continent, but to later periods, as we shall see; but their industrial remains do indicate that they arrived on our continent at a time not less than forty thousand years ago, that is, in the middle Paleolithic.
Later -we will see it better later- the full Homo sapiens sapiens arrived in America, with the culture of the specialized hunters of the Upper Paleolithic. It is there where the Mongoloid elements appear mainly, or rather, mainly in their external features, in color, but not in their skeletal features.
The generalized Neanderthaloid individuals are considered by us to be quite abundant in America but, as far as we know, no researcher recognizes them as such. This term is avoided because it is considered that the "Neanderthal race" is extinct and, therefore, they are called australoids. For us, the Australoids are ancient Caucasoids.
5. Oceanic and South Asian origin
Serious" scientific anthropologists normally consider that the American Indian population has only one origin, that of the Bering Strait, accepting at most that there was more than one migration and that the first human forms that arrived there were of primitive Mongoloid type or, rarely, Australoid. Other researchers considered "less serious" -among whom we undoubtedly count ourselves- admit a different route of origin: that of maritime navigation through the Pacific Ocean, which would be later.
More than one racial element would also have penetrated by this route. Sometimes it is claimed that the American Australoids arrived in this way; more generally, it is indicated that what was brought there was a dominant Mongoloid racial element to which, frequently, minorities of the Caucasoid type are added. According to us, both elements reached our lands via the Pacific (as well as via Bering), but we estimate the Mongoloid racial element to be much smaller than is commonly supposed.
The antiquity of these human contributions across the Pacific was considered, at the beginning, as of few centuries before the Era, but at present the numbers have increased a lot, because of archaeological discoveries realized mainly in Ecuador, North of Colombia and South of California. Roundly, it can be supposed that the first date of these new migrations goes back to 3500-30003500-3000 before Christ and that they lasted in more or less intensive form until shortly before the Era; then they continued in weak form, thanks to commercial relations.
Now the problem moves to South Asia and, to begin with, to Indonesia and neighboring areas. What racial forms existed there, then? We hardly know. The present population of that region is usually considered as Mongoloid, better paleomongoloid, but there were and are also authors who classified the Indonesians as a Caucasoid form akin with
the Mediterranean race. We count ourselves among them, although we undoubtedly admit a general and diffuse mixture with Mongoloid elements or traits. In addition, in Indonesia, there are remains of earlier populations, such as the pygmies of the Philippines and Australoid forms in Sumatra, etcetera.
Both in Indochina and Indonesia some ancient skulls of melanesoid type have been found, which is almost equivalent to saying negroid, but negroid with special characteristics.
Net Caucasoids, with aquiline nose, barbudus, etc., also exist, although they are a small minority found in the ruling classes. Generally, when they are cited, they are attributed a slightly later Hindu origin, a product of the Hindu colonization of the area, which would begin around the second century after Christ.
We are now concerned with the existence of a developed and ancient navigation, made by merchants, throughout South Asia. Its date of origin is undoubtedly prior to 5000 B.C., but it is around 3000 that we begin to have some certain and direct news of it. It also extended to the Eastern Mediterranean, from where we have some indirect news (remains of obsidian trade, found far from their sources of origin), which would date back to about 7000 BC. This navigation was mainly carried out by merchant peoples, but it is known that where there are maritime merchants there are pirates and also militarized states that try to take over this trade and that, in general, begin as a people of pirates.
We do not know which peoples of the Far East were the first to develop navigation, but they undoubtedly existed in Indochina, South China, Indonesia, India, Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Levantine Mediterranean. Around 3000 B.C., we have the first direct historical accounts of maritime traders in Southern Sumer and the Egyptian Delta, soon after, with reference to the Levantine Mediterranean and the Indus Valley civilization. These are the beginnings of the Bronze Age.
The development of the great civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Indus India eventually placed most of this trade in the hands of Caucasoid peoples, even to the Far East. It is undoubtedly - though not yet well known - that the Egyptians had an important maritime development around the middle of the third millennium B.C. (apart from later periods of maritime development); the Cretans and the Phoenicians followed them later; of the maritime peoples of the Persian Gulf coast we know practically nothing, but that they existed and that they reached distant lands, whose names we have on Sumerian tablets, but we do not know where they were. As far as we know, they went around Arabia and arrived by the Red Sea to Egypt. There is some mention of Ceylon, as an intermediate point on the way to the East.
Later, the Phoenicians arrived, by way of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, to Indochina and Indonesia. Around 800 B.C. they arrived in Sumatra (we believe that they arrived earlier, in the middle of the previous millennium and that the latter was a relocation). It is not difficult that, in the second millennium, the Cretans had also arrived in the East (a Bird of Paradise is represented in a Cretan palace). From the middle of the third millennium, that is to say, even earlier, there is a ceramic in the shape of an armadillo or tatou, in the Greek culture of the Cycladic traders; let us remember that the armadillo is an exclusively American animal.
Around the 7th century BC, the Corinthian Greeks settled in Egypt, in an authorized commercial port, with great privileges; history says nothing of their relations with the East, but Greek names remain on the coasts of Indochina and their commercial products -especially clothing and weapons- have been found in recent times in Micronesia, Hawaii and ancient America.
The history of this trade continues through Roman times, the Middle Ages and beyond, but this is no longer of interest to us.
We have published a small book, abundantly illustrated with
The representation of America in Roman maps from the time of Christ. In it we show the knowledge about America that existed at that time, since the American coasts from Mexico to the North of Peru appear in more than one ancient map, with geographical and city names. These names are mainly Sanskrit and Persian. We will soon make a new edition of the work.
It is important to have all this relation made about the South Asian traders and the intervention of Caucasoid peoples, in order to have an explanation of the presence of individuals of Europoid type in American lands, in their great civilizations. The other human type that preferably followed the same path - and that undoubtedly preceded the Caucasoids in it - is the most typical Indonesian (mixed or not with Mongoloid features), that is, a relatively small human type, slender and with delicate features, otherwise devoid of the aquiline nose and facial hair, so that it is easily distinguishable. It is abundantly represented in Mexico, in the archaic statuettes called "beautiful woman".
6. First conclusions
The American Indian population is not homogeneous. There is not at all the alleged American homotype postulated by the Czech-Americanized researcher, Ales Hrdliçka, which was obtained as a product of using the system of the middle terms and the complete elimination of minorities.
The treatment of these minorities has not yet been done in an organic way, since science does not have a good procedure to carry it out. But they do exist and we will try to distinguish them conveniently in the present work.
In particular, we are interested in distinguishing men with abundant beards and mustaches found in America, both in living forms and in ancient pre-Columbian sculptural representations, paintings and ceramics, since their study will show us a practically unknown face of American prehistory.
From the outset we have to say that there are at least two distinct types of human beings with abundant beards and moustaches in the antiquity of our continent; we have already spoken of both of them. The first is quite easy to distinguish and, undoubtedly, comprises no less than two human types, both neanderthaloid or australoid (we will henceforth use both terms as synonyms, although we believe that this will horrify more than one. The reasons for this will be explained shortly) and is preserved mainly in some very primitive peoples that have reached the present day, as well as being present in relatively ancient skulls. They would have accessed the continent by way of the Bering Strait; their culture had the typical forms of the Middle Paleolithic.
The latter is what, necessarily, makes these human beings to be considered as neanderthaloid. In the Middle Paleolithic we know -that is, it is well known- that the full Homo sapiens sapiens did not exist. It was at that time when those human beings came to our continent through Bering, bringing their culture. If we see them today - we have seen many and most readers will be able to recognize them in the illustrations - their human type is clearly Australoid (which, for us, means a primitive Caucasoid form). Hence we make the two words synonymous, as far as their practical use is concerned. Other reasons we shall see.
The second Caucasoid human type in America is the one that came by way of the transpacific traders. It is distinguished, in addition to having a beard and mustache, by the presence of a large aquiline nose and a strong chin. This type is never found in the most primitive American peoples, but only within the scope of the great American cultures. Its abundant representation in sculptures, etc., is what allows us to fully affirm its existence, apart from the fact that we have found and seen a dozen of its skulls (two complete skeletons) and measured half a dozen of them. Moreover, it is also not unique, i.e., it is not a single race, in its representations. There are at least two more types that we add, slightly, to its set: a type that seems more of Mediterranean race,
represented especially in some ancient ceramics of the Peruvian coast and an undoubtedly Hindu type, represented in abundant Mayan sculptures.
The primitive types with beards and moustaches survive today among primitive peoples; the same should be true of the more developed Caucasoid types we are now dealing with, but here we are faced with a seemingly insurmountable difficulty: these latter American Caucasoids were all, no doubt, part of the indigenous ruling class at the time of the conquest and, for the most part, were killed during the conquest; their wives and daughters were part of the spoils of the conquistadors, who had sons and daughters with them. Their descendants are, naturally, "white", since both progenitors were. How to distinguish them?
There is data provided by the chroniclers of the conquest, when they tell us that this or that woman of the indigenous nobility was white as if she were Castilian, but that is something that practically nobody has noticed yet. The chroniclers give similar reports about male individuals.
Among the present Indians of Bolivia that we have seen there are undoubtedly descendants of the human type that we are dealing with, without mixture of whites of Spanish origin; but by continued mixture with other native types, especially mongoloids, they have come to lose the beard and the moustache, while the tone of their skin is darker, like that of the other Indians; their hair is often brown and slightly wavy; the features of the face are caucasoid, the nose is large and aquiline and - an important detail for us - the eyes are light, of a light brown color or rather of a light tea color. The most common Indians we know have intensely pigmented eyes, in a brown or brownish tone, whose derivations cover the white part of the eye in twigs, like a spider's web.
Much of what we have just said may be taken, especially at the beginning of the reading of this work, as the product of mental lucubrations without a major basis, but it is not the only one.
there is no need to rush. The proof of what we say can be found in the illustrations and we refer to them.
We have tried to give the necessary interpretation of each one, which, it seems, has not aroused much interest. Undoubtedly, the interpretation we present may have its flaws and errors, but what is certain is that we try to interpret the reality that is offered to us, instead of hiding our heads like the ostrich, saying that all American Indians are of Mongoloid origin because they entered our continent by the only possible quasi-terrestrial route, the Bering Strait.
In our exposition or examination to try to isolate - we would better say discriminate - those human types in America, we cannot ignore the rest of the American Indian population, which is supposed to be of Mongoloid origin and which we will see is not so much so. Isolated (external) mongoloid traits appear abundantly in America in various human types, but fully mongoloid human forms in all their traits are relatively scarce, to such an extent that the situation arises of saying that they are minorities, even though these minorities are much larger in number than those corresponding to individuals with beards and mustaches. Moreover, these Mongoloid human forms do not present a unity, but correspond to quite distinct races. There are very primitive forms of it and others highly developed.
In addition, there are other minorities that appear to be tiny, represented by individuals with clearly negroid features - African and Oceanic negroids - as well as pygmy and pygmoid human forms, which have been tried in vain to disappear by arbitrary statistical procedures.
The very basis of the general American Indian population, in its most representative types, especially its women, seems to us to come from the oldest migration made by way of the Bering Strait, that is to say, it is Australoid. By continuous mixing for many millennia with later migrants, already of Mongoloid type, they have generally come to lose the beard and mustache (and early baldness), as the new
invaders, of course, killed the men but kept their women, with whom they had mestizo children. In this way, the study of indigenous women is of primary interest to understand the origin of the oldest American population. This study has not yet been done; all anthropological studies are conducted primarily on male individuals.
In the first chapters of this work, we will have to make a general review of the pre-Columbian American population, examining some of the classifications of their races that have been made by various authors, in order to place ourselves in the general panorama. Naturally, we will begin by presenting the classifications most contrary to the thesis we sustain here.
With the foregoing, we have offered the general panorama of the existing American population, according to our concept, and we have located the bearded human forms of the Caucasoid type. Now, in the body of the work, we must demonstrate what we have said. What is fundamental are our illustrations and their corresponding interpretation.
Classification of American Indians
1. Racial and cultural background of the problem
The problem we are dealing with began by having a racial and cultural aspect at the same time, since both concepts were not conveniently separated in the early days of research, since the starting point was the idea that each people formed a race and that each race had its own culture. This was valid for the beginnings of scientific research, but it existed vaguely before.
The chroniclers at the very moment of the conquest had to face the problem, since the Pope himself, shortly after the discovery, decided that the American Indians were men, not animals that could be enslaved without charge of conscience and, consequently, descended from Adam and Eve. For this reason, it was necessary to find out how or by what means they had arrived in the newly discovered lands.
Where did the American Indians come from, in whole or in part? When some cultural element was studied, it was always inextricably linked to the racial problem. If it was a question, for example, of the jade pieces that appeared in Mexico, the origin of the Mexican race was analyzed -which must have come from China- and not the origin of that element, in isolation. This happened until the existence of native jade was discovered in Mexico.
This went on for a long time until, in the middle of the last century, the attitude gradually changed and culminated in the triumph of a group of researchers who assumed an attitude of
critical. This camp was then called Evolutionist, pretending that it was connected with the evolutionist ideas of the Natural Sciences, but, in reality, it did not have, nor does it have, of them, more than an external, verbal aspect. In reality, it is nothing but a form under which the polygenism of the human species was disguised, in order to sustain at least the polygenism of human inventions. Even many researchers who have believed themselves to be monogenists fall into this category, such as, for example, Alfredo Trombetti, who supported the monogenism of the origin of language and did not realize that, in the form in which he presented this monogenism, he was supporting thousands of polygenetic facts for language. For example, he affirmed the unity of the American languages and their reunion in a single linguistic group or set (already made and accepted before) called Polysynthetic. But this common and unique origin (being a single group) of the American languages automatically implies that the details of the languages must be independent inventions. Such is the case of the pure decimal numeration of the Quichua language, which could not have come originally from Alaska, or the decavigesimal numeration, with high numerals, of the Mayas; or the existence of gender in several languages of the Upper Amazon and of numerals in the Central American languages, etc. None of these could have come from Alaska and, therefore, would be of independent, polygenetic invention. The same error was made, almost in our days, by the linguist Morris Swadesh.
Something similar happens, although in a more conscious way, with current researchers who maintain the unique origin of American man, through the unique Alaskan way.
We should point out that we must explain something about monogenism and polygenetic origin. The Bible itself speaks of the unique origin of man: all human beings are descended from Adam Eve; but it also speaks of the multiple, polygenetic origin of animals and plants. In reality, it is a question of two distinct forms of thought, which have been combined in the common form of thinking. It happens as follows: the things that matter to us - such as the origin of man - we suppose them to be of unique origin; true inventions or works of art, we know that they are from
single origin; but the things that do not matter to us or that are of very ancient knowledge or invention, we suppose without difficulty as coming from multiple inventions, made in different times and places. Thus before, in the natural sciences, it was supposed that mice were born spontaneously in the garbage, worms in the mud or in rotten things, etc., without having any kind of antecedents. Now we know well that nothing can exist without having its antecedents, but it is still thought that simple facts are produced or invented spontaneously.
For us, polygenist thinking, in its purest expression - which is confused with creationism, that is, when it is assumed that things can exist without having antecedents - is the survival of an extremely primitive, we would say, neanderthaloid way of thinking. We leave that, because to clarify it well requires a series of long explanations that we cannot develop here. In the American aborigines, the presence of such features: abundant beard and mustache, aquiline noses, baldness, etc., cannot be considered of independent, polygenetic and spontaneous appearance, but must have their necessary biological antecedents. These are not found on our continent; the same is true of numerous objects of culture, whose necessary antecedents are not here but in the Old World.
We return to the above. When, at the end of the last century and the beginning of the present one, the study of European prehistory was making triumph an organized form of "evolutionist" ideas, the same idea was applied to the whole world, as an organized and comprehensive solution of prehistory. After a long struggle, monogenism on the origin of the human species triumphed, but it was an ill-conceived monogenism which, in turn, included the existence of an infinity of traits of polygenetic origin; the same happened with the "monogenist" linguistic theses of Trombetti and Swadesh.
With that triumph came a racial interpretation concerned only with determining the routes of emigration of the "great races": white, black and yellow. It was accepted as the first origin of the human species, more or less, the center of Asia; the different
emigrations took place from there, without major concerns. In other words, the black races - considered to be the most primitive - would have spread towards South Asia and from there would have gone directly to Oceania and Africa. The white race, which is later, migrated towards Europe and Southwest Asia. Another later race, the yellow, conserved and expanded its territory in Asia and passed towards America by way of Bering, as the easiest and most probable route. Later there would have been a yellow invasion, in great part of Oceania.
Thus conceived the racial evolution, the cultural interpretation could not be other than that of a polygenism of the inventions produced after the separation of the races from their original center. This interpretation was produced and dominated most researchers of prehistory and history, and even dominates today.
It is important to insist a little on the cultural facts. Notwithstanding what has been said above, with this approach to prehistory there were already some interpretations in which the American indigenous high culture -or rather, some of its elements- would have arrived here from Oceania. Naturally, those comparisons did not have greater demonstrative force, since if it was accepted that a great art of the high cultural elements of America were of independent origin in this continent, the allogenic origin of a few of them could hardly be sustained and demonstrated. If many inventions could be made in different places, why would it be accepted that a few of them were not?
In this state the triumph of the evolutionist-polygenist camp took place. The American researchers - with whom this tendency developed the most, despite having many adversaries in their own country - counted on a researcher with a remarkable critical spirit, but only for the theories of his opponents. He was Professor Ales Hrdliçka, of Czech origin.
Certainly, this trend already had notable predecessors in North America; Samuel Morton -who argued for the total racial unity of the North American Indians- and the Frenchman Du Ponceau,
who in turn supported the unity, in a single original group, of all the American Indian languages. In those years, the scientific activity of Franz Boas, also a supporter of the single origin via Alaska, was outstanding. He formed a series of notable disciples to whom he imposed the idea that it was necessary to work on the collection of materials before the indigenous peoples disappeared. It was not necessary to waste time in research on origin topics, the convenient thing was to collect materials and not to devote oneself to thinking. Thus posed the problem of the investigation, it had to fall necessarily in the simplest interpretation on the origin of the American population: the direct Asian origin, by Bering.
2. Classification of indigenous people, according to Hrdliçka
Hrdliçka did much more with respect to the subject we are dealing with. It is said of him that his interpretation was the result of his research and not of an a priori concept, but it is enough to examine it and to examine the historical moment in which it was produced, to see that the a priori existed in his criticisms themselves, and that what he did with them was to condition American prehistory to the "logical" vision of the prehistory of the world, which had already been constructed at that time.
Hrdliçka traveled through various parts of the continent, examining the human remains and utensils then postulated as probative of the great antiquity of American man. The criticism he made of them, no doubt, was useful in part, for he concluded with a chaotic state of exaggerated interpretations. In this we have nothing to reproach him, except that his examinations were made too hastily. When this work was concluded, that is, after having prepared and cleared the ground well, Hrdliçka published his pyropic theory (which, no doubt, he had already had before, and from which he made his criticisms) where he maintained the unique origin of American man in Asia, with exclusive entrance through Bering and a low antiquity, ten thousand years, for that migration (later increased, with reluctance, to fifteen thousand years). Along with this, he maintained the racial unity of American man, whom he subdivided into four sub-races, occupying different regions of the continent.
and that they would have arrived here in succession. Naturally, the American population was a specialized form of the great Mongoloid race. Discordant facts, such as, for example, the appearance of bearded men in America, do not merit a single word of explanation in his work. He ignores them olympically.
Overall, here is the summary of Hrdliçka's thesis:
"The differences that are presented among the Indians are more apparent than real, and in no case do they come to give us a difference of race; everything argues for a general original unity of the Indians. The same is true of the languages, which have grammatical similarities, etc., and which come together in a great original group - the Polysynthetic - which proves the existence of a vast kinship of origin.
"In culture we find also numerous proofs of a similar unity. There are in the technique of stone, wood, clay, in weaving and basket making, in methods of providing shelter and fire, in clothing and scanty furnishings, in agriculture, in games, in medicine, religion and conceptions of nature, in folklore, in social organizations, in warlike usages, and even in other important and intimate phases of Indian life. Moreover, essential resemblances are discovered in the minds and behavior of the Indians throughout the two continents.
"The constitution is also unitary: they are easy prey to alcohol; little exposed to diseases such as cretinism, cancer, insanity, etc., while weak to tuberculosis, measles, smallpox and syphilis.
"The fundamental color is soft brown or yellowish and varies to a brownish yellow and chocolate; the hair is black and straight; the body hairiness sparse; a characteristic racial odor is lacking; the pulse is slow; the head size and cranial capacity are slightly smaller than in whites; the skull a little thicker. The eyes are dark brown, bluish conjunctiva in children, pearly white in adolescents and dirty yellow in adults; slightly oblique. The nasal bridge is curved, moderately or markedly so; the nose robust, often aquiline in males, shorter and straighter and even concave in females; mesorhinal. The malar region is prominent and the canine or suborbital fossae are shallower than in whites.
"The mouth is large and so is the palate. Medium lips,
thicker than in whites. Prognathism intermediate between whites and blacks. Voluminous chin, sometimes square, larger and less prominent than in whites. Stronger teeth than in whites, with the internal face of the upper incisors in the shape of a shovel. This constitutes a specific racial character. The ears are large.
"The neck is of medium length and thick; the chest deeper than in whites; the female breasts are medium or little more and conical. In females, the disproportion between pelvis and shoulders is less than among whites. Absence of steatopygia; the lumbar curve is moderate. Lower extremities thinner than in whites; slender calf. Hands and feet of moderate size. Important characteristic of unity are the relative radiohumeral and tibiofemoral proportions, which are of similar average value throughout the continent and intermediate between whites and blacks. Three common elements of the skeleton are the plactibrachia, platimeria and platicnemia.
"This, for the whole race in general. The minor differences that arise may even be extra-American.
"As far as antiquity and origin are concerned, it is impossible that primitive peoples could have sailed from Europe or Africa. The Bering Strait, which is only 30 miles long, and the Aleutian Islands offer a possible route for peoples of little culture. Returning to the racial question, the Indian does not resemble the white nor the black, while in Siberia, on the East coast of the Asian continent, Malaysia and even Polynesia, a type appears that in its essential features is practically identical to the Indian.
"This type is found today with particular purity in the Philippines (Igorots), in Formosa, in parts of mainland China, in Mongolia and in many parts of Siberia. Also in China, Korea and Japan. The physical resemblance between some members of this type and the American Indian is such that if a member of either group were transplanted and dressed like those of the tribe in the midst of which he was placed, he could not possibly be distinguished by any means within the reach of even a scientific observer.
"Such similarities are not fortuitous. They show that the American population came from Siberia, which is the only possible way. The Mongoloids of the Pacific have only recently arrived there yy , therefore, they cannot be considered as possible original emigrants, although it is not impossible that some islanders came later.
"In Siberia, no remains of the ancient Paleolithic are found; almost
everything is Neolithic. This leads to the assertion that the beginning of the migration to America occurred in times of the last Paleolithic and the first Neolithic, in numbers, about 10,000 or 15,000 years. The migrants must have been small groups of hunters and fishermen, who later multiplied on the continent.
"The emigrants, although all belonging to the same main race, were not strictly homogeneous, but represented several distinct subtypes of the yellow-dark peoples, with differences in culture and language.
"The first of these subtypes is that of the dolichocephalic Indian, represented today in North America by the Algonquians, Iroquois, Sioux and Shoshones; farther south, by the Pimaaztecs and, in South America, by many tribes extending over large regions of that continent, from Venezuela and the coast of Brazil to Tierra del Fuego, the so-called 'race of Lagõa Santa' are merely Indians of this type.
"Then came the type Morton called 'Toltec,' characterized by brachycephaly, which settled along the Northwest coast, in the central and eastern mound regions, in the West Indies, Mexico (including Yucatan), the Gulf States, much of Central America, finally reaching the coast of Peru and other parts of northern South America.
"Still later, two new subtypes arrived, the Athabascans and the Eskimos. The Athabascans, of a virile brachycephalic type, related to the common Siberians and to the brachycephalics of the previous subtype, occupy Alaska and northwestern Canada, with islands of penetration in California (Hupa), and in Arizona, New Mexico, Texas and parts of northern Mexico (Navajo and Apache).
"This, in brief, seems to be the story of the genesis of the American Indians, as derived from the present and generally acceptable anthropological evidence." (Hrdliçka, Ales: The Origin and Antiquity of the American Indians, 1925.)
As it is easy to notice, this theory - and it cannot be called anything else but a theory, for it presents no other proof than that of a logical construction - implies the independent origin of the highest American Indian civilization, since the great civilizations of Mexico and Peru could not have arrived formed, even in their remotest beginnings, in the migrations produced by way of Alaska. The whole interpretation is based on treating the indigenous majority in middle terms,
The majority is unknown how it was obtained; minorities are conspicuous by their absence, as are men with beards and moustaches.
Hrdliçka's thesis survives in the majority of North American and world researchers, although it is generally denied; but we can say that what remains is the fundamental basis of the single Asian origin, by Bering, a thesis prior to Hrdliçka.
For our research, the racial subdivision presented by Hrdliça is of greater interest and offers an important detail. We will deal with it later. We regret that the author has not presented us with a map, as this would clarify many things.
Long before Hrdliçka there were several racial classifications of Americans. We are interested in two, which were starting points for researchers in both Americas: that of Samuel Morton, in the United States, and that of Alcides D'Orbigny, for South America. The first is easy to present in a few words, since it claims - like Hrdliçka - the unity of all the American Indians and even their independent origin in our continent, that is, he was in favor of the polygenism of the human species. In fact, Hrdliçka followed him, but with the difference of annexing the only American race to the Mongolian one.
D'Orbigny's classification of South America was widely accepted in Europe and South America, particularly in Argentina. It includes the subdivision of the South American Indians into three great races, which he studied more especially in the southern regions and, in detail, in Bolivia. These three races are the following: Pampean, Brasilio-Guarani and Ando-Peruvian races. By their names we can deduce the territories they occupied.
The first important modification to D'Orbigny's classification was the separation of the Guarani Indians from the so-called Lagõa Santa race, which Deniker later called the Paleo-American race. More recently, E. von Eickstedt called it the Lagõa Santa race (while considering all Americans as a particular specialization of the great Mongoloid race),
subdivided into eight minor breeds). It is a primitive racial type, very dolichocephalic and coarse-faced, with strong superciliary arches. It was first formed on the basis of a series of ancient skulls found in the region of Lagõa Santa in Minas Geraes, Brazil; then the living Botocudos and other primitive peoples, in their culture, of eastern Brazil, which D'Orbigny had incorporated into the Brasilio-Guarani race and the Fuegians, which the same author had placed at the end of his Ando-Peruvian race, were annexed to it.
3. Imbelloni's American racial classification
Dr. José Imbelloni subdivided this laguid race into the two components mentioned above, which were originally separated, according to D'Orbigny's classification, but which were united by Deniker and von Eickstedt. He called them thus: fuéguidos and laguidos. Then, following especially von Eickstedt, he classified the other American Indian races, with some important modifications.
We will present here the part of the racial classification of this author, which is entirely American. The order in which we arrange it is not the same as Imbelloni's, since we follow an order from the oldest to the youngest, while the author follows a geographical order from North to South, as well as the order of origin. The order in which we present these races is that which, according to the author, corresponds to their arrival on the continent, which is more logical and gives us greater clarity of vision. We also reproduce his map:
"(a) Breeds of pre-Mongolian Asian origin (Australoids).
"1². Fuéguidos. Because of their culture of fishermen they inhabit the coasts and are very dispersed in the continent. The largest living group appears in the Magellanic territories and in the Chilean islands, to the South of Chiloé (yámanas and alacalufes and the extinct chonos); then, the changos of the coast of Antofagasta and the remains that are in the conchales of all the Chilean and Peruvian coast; the living urus and chipayas in the Altiplano of Bolivia; in Colombia
and Venezuela the type abounds among the Chocós, Piaroa, Ibi-Opoto, Goajiro and Motilones. In northern California, the remnants of Humboldt Bay and some living tribes north of San Francisco. In Brazil, some remain among the Botocudos (Aymoré) and inhabited much of the coast before the Guarani invasion.
"They are of short stature (1.57 in the male, and 1.4 in the female), dolichocephalic (cephalic index 77 in the living; in the skull, from 73 to 77) with low cranial vault (vertebral-transverse index 84-95), narrow forehead, elongated face, leptomorphic nose, oblong palate. In short, a dolichomorphic, platycephalic, leptoprosopic, leptorhine canon. The conformation of the skull is carinate; the superciliary arches are marked. The body conformation is not very harmonious and the lower limbs often show a rachitic development.
"29. Lagõa Santa. They constitute the Lagõa Santa type, also called Paleoamerican, but from it the Fuéguidos have been separated. They inhabit the Brazilian Planalto (linguistic group Gê) and brief sectors and numerous deposits scattered in both continents, such as the southern end of the California peninsula, the ancient burials of Coahuila, several shells of the Chilean coast, some ancient skulls of the province of Buenos Aires, etc. In addition, several small groups from the Amazonian forest.
"They are individuals of short stature (1.50 to 1.57), with a pronounced dolichocephalic skull (index of 66 to 73), with high cranial vault (vertebral-transverse index of 101 to 105), wide and low face, broad nose, camerrinina, short palate. In vivo the nasal fins are pronounced and fleshy, the dorsum concave and short. The shoulders are broad, the pectoral fins are well developed, the arm is muscular and the calf is pronounced. The sexual difference is marked, both in the stature and in the transverse dimensions, as graceful females abound. Light yellow skin color; soft and smooth skin; hair with brown highlights, wavy and even curly. Roughly modeled face.
"39. Pampas. They extend throughout the Chaco, the Pampas and Patagonia, including also the Onas of Tierra del Fuego, the Charrúas of Uruguay and the Bororó group of Matto Grosso. The latter are separated by a Guaranitic intrusion. They are tall and even very tall: Chaco from 1.60 to 1.70 for males and 1.55 for females; Patagonia, from 1.73 to 1.83; in Tierra del Fuego 1.73 for males and 1.60 for females. Dolichocephalic skull (Onas, from 78 to 79; Chacoans 77 to 78), but in the recent Patagonians it is brachycephalic, due to the Araucanian mixture. The conformation of the skull is large and voluminous, with very wide bones of notable weight,
AMERICAN INDIGENOUS RACES, according to Imbelloni. This author later published more complex maps, indicating areas of admixture, etc., but we prefer to present the map of his first classification, for its simplicity and clarity. The system of classification of the races by their origin, follows the order elaborated by Ibarra Grasso and not the geographical order given by Imbelloni; in the form presented, the racial origins are more clearly exposed.
CLASSIFICATION OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLE, according to S. Canals Frau. Map made by Ibarra Grasso, gathering in only one all the partial maps of the mentioned author and classifying the groups, according to their origins.
the powerful cheekbones and the thick and protruding chin, the face is elongated and the nasal index leptorhinous. The construction of the skeleton is massive, sometimes enormous, with the proportions of the limbs in remarkable harmony, which makes the Pampid one of the most superb models of the human organism. The sexual diformismo is very scarce. The skin color is intensely pigmented, with bronze reflections. The iris is dark and the hair is hard and smooth.
"4². Planarids. They inhabit most of the North American plains. They are tall individuals (males from 1.66 to 1.76; females around 1.58). Weakly dolichocephalic skull (79 to 81). Solid head constitution; the thickness and prominence of the cheekbones and the chin, thick and square, stand out. Long and curved nose, like an eagle's beak in males, while in females all the straight lines are replaced in the face by rounded features, which translates into a marked physiognomic sexual deformity. The impression given by the construction of the body is Europoid, but there is a relative disharmony in the proportions, since the remarkable development of the body and the head correspond to weak limbs. The skin color is tan, rather light, hair and iris are dark. The features of the Plánido in general are attractive; the expression of the face gives it a vigorous aspect.
"5². Sonorans. They inhabit the Northwest of Mexico and the Southwest of the United States (California). They are rather tall (1.66 to 1.70 for males; 1.52 to 1.58 for females). Moderately dolichocephalic skull (cephalic index of 78 to 80). Small head, with finer features than in the Planoids, flat nose, narrow and runny forehead, rounded facial contours. The bodily construction also stands out for its longilinear habit, for the less developed torso and especially for the notable length of the lower limbs; in general, it is a lighter and more agile human form than that of the Planoids, with features of morphological infantilism. Much darker skin color, tending to reddish reflections.
(The last three races, according to Imbelloni, i.e., Pampidae, Planidae and Sonoridae, are local differentiations of a single original one, which integrates the third of the ancient peoples of the continent).
"(b) Breeds of oceanic origin, of Mongolian admixture.
"6². Amazonidae. They inhabit the Amazon region, the Guianas, Venezuela, the West Indies, Florida, the coasts of Brazil, and, on the
Paraguay, they descend to the Rio de la Plata. They are individuals of medium and short stature (in the northern Amazon region, 1.55 to 1.58 for males; females, 1.45; in the southern Amazon, 1.61 for males). Moderately dolichocephalic skull, with a tendency towards brachycephaly (cephalic index: Caribs, 81 to 82; Arawak, 81 to 84; Tupi, 79 to 80). Robust body construction, reminiscent of the pnicnic constitution of the Alpine breed of Europe; broad shoulders, voluminous neck and arms with well-developed muscles. The legs, on the contrary, are relatively weak and short, in contrast to the remarkable length of the arm. The body of the women descends evenly to the hip, with no waistline. The face has no protruding features, as a result of its medium height, and mediocre development of the cheekbones and nose, although the latter has somewhat open flaps. Skin color of various shades, but relatively light on a yellowish background.
"79. Pueblo-Andean. They extend through the Andean zone, from the South of Colombia to Araucania. In the Central American zone they are covered by the emigration of the following race, but reappear toward the middle of Mexico and, from there, extend northward and toward Utah. Then they descend again and occupy the coasts of the Gulf and, in ancient times, Florida. Men of short stature (from 1.59 to 1.62). Brachycephalic skull (cephalic index of 81 to 89). Small head, especially in females, but without platycephaly; short face, broad-based nose, but with sufficiently long, protruding dorsum; bizogomatic diameter remarkably broad. Torso very developed in comparison with the limbs, convex thorax. Variable skin color, but with predominance of intense pigmentations. Scarce body pilosity, hair hard and smooth, black; dark iris.
"8². Isthmids. They extend from the center of Mexico to Colombia; being something uncertain its limits, in the South zone. Men of short stature, usually inferior to the previous ones (from 1.50 to 1.58 in the males; 1.45 in the Mayan women). Extremely brachycephalic skull (cephalic index of 86 to 89). Coarse bodily construction, wide and very short face; what tends to give an image of a 'coarse' type is the shape of the nose, of broadened base and platirrino canon and that of the chin, which loses the symphyseal relief and shows itself fleeing towards the back. Darker skin color than in other Indians; black hair and eyes. Overall, its characters are an intensification of those presented by the previous type, that is, a much more mongoloid type.
"(Throughout this area, the presence of a 'thinner' element is noticeable, especially to the north, recognizable especially by the shape.
of the nose and the physiognomy, which presents a more harmonious aspect; moreover, they are dolichocephalic. It can be hypothesized that the area was initially populated by a type akin to the Sonorid, on which the two brachycephalic types, Pueblo-Andean and Isthmid, spilled over". Imbelloni has built his Isthmian race on the coarser and coarser type present in the region).
"(c) Races of recent Asian origin, more or less Mongolian.
Abstract
"9². Columbids. They inhabit southern Alaska, English Columbia, penetrating inland to touch the Athabasca and Slave Lakes; to the south, they penetrate a little into California. More recent migrations have taken them to the central zone of the border between Mexico and the United States (Navajo and Apache). Individuals of medium and tall stature (in the male, from 1.61 to 1.70; in the female, from 1.52 to 1.60). Intensely brachycephalic skull (cephalic index from 84 to 89). The torso is short and thick, the legs are short, especially on the coast, while the arms are very long. The general color of the skin is rather light, the hairiness of the face is sparse. Dark brown hair, dark iris; there is no shortage of lighter colors. The nose is noticeably smaller than in typical prairie dwellers; shorter and less prominent. Two sub-regions can be distinguished: an internal and a coastal one, the latter with a greater predominance of Mongolian forms. This is probably an influence on populations of taller stature, whose action is attenuated in the interior. " 10^(2)10^{2} . Attids. These are the Eskimo and extend over all the islands and the Arctic edges of the continent. Their multiple phases of mogolization, and the strict somatic and cultural relationship that links them to the humanity of Asia, impose to consider them as an element that cannot be understood in the phyletic history of the Indian." (Imbelloni, J.: Three Chapters on the Systematics of American Man, 1937).
This is the complete summary of the American racial classification of Imbelloni who, in his work, presents it to us with very few other details. His predominant interpretative idea about the history of the American Indian population can be summarized as follows: dolichocephalic-australoid and brachycephalic-mongoloid.
Imbelloni does not make any reference to the existence of
bearded men in indigenous America, despite the fact that the Australoids in Australia and neighboring islands are abundantly bearded. Accepting - as he does - the Australoid origin of the cited peoples, he should at least have said a few words to try to explain this loss of the beard, for example, simply saying that the Mongoloid mixture that they had in America, being dominant - and, due to the fact that the Mongoloids were hairless - produced the disappearance of the facial hairiness of the American Australoids. Again, the author does not give us any explanation.
It is now interesting to note the concordance of this classification with that of Hrdliçka, although Imbelloni classifies distinct races and Hrdliçka subdivisions of a single race. The first subtype of Hrdliçka comprises all the dolichocephalans of Imbelloni, that is, his first five races (plus a large part of his Amazonids); likewise, the second subtype of Hrdliçka, that is, the "Toltec", is quite identified with the brachycephalic Pueblo-Andids and Isthmids of Imbelloni, but here there is an important datum, to which we have alluded before as valuable. For Hrdliçka, the coastal Columbids belong to the same brachycephalic "Toltec" group, while the inland population of adjacent Canada forms a distinct and later race, consisting of the Athabascans; Imbelloni brings the two groups together in a way which seems to us entirely arbitrary, as it is contrary to the facts of physical anthropology of those regions, with which we are familiar.
As can be observed, apart from the point discussed, when both authors use the anthropological measurements of height and cephalic index, their divisions coincide quite well, even though Imbelloni, because he has used more measurements, presents a greater subdivision of the peoples of America.
Imbelloni's classification, in our opinion, is the most complete we have so far, although it is still far from satisfying our study needs. The main criticism that can be made of him (as well as of Hrdliçka and Canals Frau -which we will deal with below- is that they use too many middle terms. This prevents them from seeing the minorities of importance. In addition, in part, they resort to a bibliography that is already
The old, not critically reviewed in detail, in order to deepen the points not sufficiently studied before.
4. The American racial classification, according to Canals Frau
Salvador Canals Frau, in 1950, based on both von Eickstedt and Imbelloni, presented a new classification of the American Indians which, like that of Imbelloni, has some modifications with respect to the previous ones. Especially in the South American region, he presents a new race, that of the Huárpidos, to which he attributes a very primitive origin, which he extracts from the marginal territories of the Southern Andids. For him, the Láguidos and Huárpidos would be the oldest population of South America. At the same time, he considers that the Patagónidos (the Pámpidos of Imbelloni) would not be an original race, but formed later, by local derivation of the Huárpidos. He is also of the opinion that the Fuéguidos are not the oldest American population, as Imbelloni maintains, but of much later origin, Mesolithic. The oldest American population - which arrived through the Bering Strait - would be about twenty-five thousand years old and would correspond to an Aurignacian cultural level, that is, from the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic.
The Huarpid race is very important, since the author considers it to be of a completely Australoid type, pointing out in particular the presence of abundant beard in its members.
Canals Frau maintains that America was populated by four different currents; the other two, more recent, would be of transpacific oceanic origin. Likewise, the author rejects the name of races for the groups we are dealing with (he reserves this term for what the other authors call mother races or great races) and prefers to call them racial types.
The following is a summary of what Canals Frau, whose descriptions are much more extensive than Imbelloni's, tells us.
"(a) First population stream: Australoid races.
"1. racial type Salvido. They are the Imbelloni's Planidae, reduced to half their size (see maps), comprising mainly the Algonquians and Iroquois. The physical characteristics of the Sylvids are, first of all, a rather tall stature (average height of males, over 170 cm; of females, 160 cm), athletic constitution and good skeletal proportions. The head, of large size, is weakly dolicoid (horizontal cephalic index around 78) and tall (average height index, around 85), characteristics that are more accentuated in the peoples more distant from the contact zones and also in ancient skulls from the area of occupation. In ancient pieces, from the current area of dispersion of this type, the horizontal cephalic index is close to 75; the average height is around 86. The face, rather long (facial index close to 87) and very characteristic nose, which, due to its somewhat arched shape and large size, is very close to that of the europids. Because of this feature, there is sometimes talk of components of this origin in the physiognomy of the North American Indians of the forest and prairie region. In this we must see, more than the consequence of mixtures with Europeans, reminiscences of the common origin of the ancestors of our Sylvids and of certain groups of europids, in the North Asian populations of the Upper Paleolithic.
The camecranes of the second wave entered the continent later than the hypsicranes of the first wave. The camecranes of the second wave entered the continent later than the hypsicranes of the first wave.
"3. racial type Languid. They coincide almost completely with Imbelloni's Laguids. That the Languids represent a really ancient human form is clearly denoted by their own morphology: accentuatedly dolicoid skull (horizontal cephalic index, 72 in ancient skulls and 75 in living beings) and high (average height index approaching 87), with pronounced superciliary arches, medium face, tending to low (facial index, in the skull, about 84), relatively wide nose (nasal index, in the skull, 51) and stature - which must be considered low - around 160 cm . for men and 153 cm. for women.
"4. racial type Huárpido. Form and denomination created by the author, who considers it as the one that has best preserved the Australoid characters of the primitive settlers. With this it is said that it is a human form of tall stature (average height of men, about 170 cm. that, in certain groups, can reach up to 190), frankly leptosoma complexion, long face (facial index above 88), pronounced dolicoidism (horizontal cephalic index, in the skull, around 75), and tall head (average height index, 85 and more). Their strong pilosity, their somewhat wavy hair and the dark color of their skin are three anthropological characters quite unusual among Indians, for which reason, since ancient times, they have attracted the attention of many observers. Allusions to these 'bearded Indians' have been frequent over the years.
Within this racial type, whose habitat is Argentine and Bolivian, the author places the Huarpes, Comechingones, Sirionós and Urus tribes.
"5. racial type Patagonid. In everything, they correspond to the Pámpidos of Imbelloni. The Patagónidos are of sturdy and tall stature, characteristic that places them among the tallest peoples of the Earth. As a general measure, they are 178 cm. tall for men and 168 cm. for women. This remarkable height is accompanied by a corresponding athletic complexion, in the most typical groups, both male and female, which undoubtedly conditions a very little pronounced sexual deformity. The skull of the Patagonidae, voluminous and massive, with thick walls and strong superciliary arches, can be considered dolicoid (horizontal cephalic index, close to 78), and high.
(height index, about 85), although certain circumstances sometimes make it appear rounder. The face is also rather elongated in shape (facial index, about 88). The nose is mesorhine, that is, medium (nasal index in vivo, about 75).
"Canals Frau considers the Patagonids to be a racial group of relatively recent formation, derived from the Huarpids and formed in the Patagonian solitudes, by mutation.
"(b) Second stream:
Primitive Mongoloid breeds
"6. racial type Esquímido. They coincide with the Artidos of Imbelloni. The Eskimos constitute the Arctic population, par excellence, of America. Of rather short stature, high and elongated head, broad face and high and narrow nose, they represent a type different from that of the neighboring Indians. Hence they are considered as a separate racial type, which has been denominated Esquimido. In the coasts of the English Columbia there are archaeological remains of a paleoesquimal population, dolichocephalic, to which another brachycephalic one superimposed itself, which we will see soon. The origin of the Eskimos would be Siberian; their cultural level, of Mesolithic origin.
"The stature of the Eskimo is relatively short, although there is some difference between the eastern and Alaskan groups. While the average height of the former does not usually exceed 162 cm. in males, in the latter it can reach up to 166 cm. The head is generally large, elongated (horizontal cephalic index around 78) and of great capacity, one of the largest on Earth. The cranial vault is high, with an index around 86 in Greenland, and somewhat lower in Alaska. The face, broad and long, with a facial index of over 90, shows protruding cheekbones. The nose is also high, with nasal index bordering on 70. The general appearance is mongoloid, but with some europid characters, which is in accordance with the transitional shape character that undoubtedly corresponds to the type.
"The beginnings of the proto-schist wave must be placed at the beginning of the Recent (Holocene), that is, about seven thousand years ago.
"7. racial type Pacífido. They form a second Mesolithic wave, already in Neolithic times. They are the fishing peoples of the Columbia coast and the Athabascans of the interior of Canada, in addition to their Navajo and Apache relatives, who migrated far to the south. The
American descendants of this second Mesolithic wave constitute today the racial type called Pachyphyid and is the predominant one, both on the Northwest coast and in the interior of Alaska and in western Canada. It is a type of man of short to medium stature, ranging from about 161 cm. among the Lilluet to 167 cm. among the Shuswap. In the interior, where they border with Sylvan peoples, the stature is usually somewhat taller, according to the greater or lesser contact they have had with those Indians who, before them, occupied the interior regions, located east of the Rocky Mountains. The torso is short and thick, the legs short and the arms long. The head is also short (horizontal cephalic index, about 83) and low (average height index, also about 83). Artificial deformation of the head is frequent, which increases the cephalic index. The face is broad and moderately high (facial index, about 87). The nose, straight and regular, is not as large as that of the neighboring Sylvids. The color is quite light, a circumstance that made one of the first discoverers say that the Indians of the Northwest coast were as white as the Spaniards themselves.
"8. racial type Califórmido. They occupy California, high and low. They derive from the proto-schimal background. They were men of short stature, dolicoid and of relatively high cranial vault, that is to say, they belonged to the racial type that we have called Esquímido. Because they were shellfish eaters, their shells formed shells, which date back to about 4,000 years before Christ. They are often found mixed with the Sonorids already in ancient sites, which is why they usually have a low cranial vault. The present-day Yuki, a small group of ethnic remnants of an independent language, living somewhat north of the San Francisco Bay, undoubtedly represent their most typical group. The stature is reduced, since it does not exceed 158 cm., on average, in the men. The head is small, elongated, with a horizontal cephalic index of 76. Face and cranial vault are equally low, with a facial index of 78 and an average height index of around 81. Generally speaking, it can be said that the physiognomic features of the Californidae are not very accentuated and that there is an evident lack of harmony in them. This type of man is only abundant in central California.
"9. racial type Fuéguido. They correspond to the Fuéguidos of Imbelloni, although with a very different cultural interpretation. The physical characteristics of the Fuéguidos are very similar to those of the other schimoid types. Their stature is short (about 156 cm ... for males and 146 cm for females). The skull is dolicoid (index close to 77) and low (average height index, 83) and has a carinate shape.
of the roof, discernible also in the other mesolithics of the first wave. The face should be considered low, as indicated by its facial index of about 84, while the nose is medium (nasal index of 47, in the skull and 75 in the living).
"(c) Third stream: pro-Mongoloid pro-Mongoloids.
Abstract
"10. racial type Brasilido. It corresponds to the Amazonids of Imbelloni. The Brasilidos represent a human form of short stature (height of males, around 160 cm.; of females, 147 cm.), of moderately short head (cephalic index around 8) and low (average height index, around 80). The face is relatively wide (facial index close to 79) and the nose is medium (nasal index close to 82). Their constitution, with soft relief, well-developed musculature, broad shoulders and broad thorax, tends to give them a rather stocky and sympathetic appearance. In their morphology they have preserved, to varying degrees, some other proto-mongoloid features.
"11. racial type Sudéstido. Their dispersion is seen in the map. They are a separation of the eastern Pueblo branch, from Imbelloni. The Sudéstidos constitute an Indian form, of relatively high stature (about 170 cm . the men and 153 cm . the women, on average). Their head is short (cephalic index, about 8) and tall (average height index, about 85). The tall stature and the equally tall cranial vault clearly separate this type from the other brachioids, which are always short in height and head. The face (facial index, on the skull, about 87) and nose (nasal index, on the skull, about 49) can be estimated as medium. This racial type is considered to be an admixture with a Sylvian substrate.
"(d) Fourth stream:
mixed with Polynesian white race
"For Canals Frau, the following two racial types are forms of mixture (metamorphic races) made in America, thanks to the emigration of the Polynesian race (accepted as Caucasoid, with origin in India before migrating to Polynesia) and its crossbreeding with pre-existing local peoples; the first of them, the Ándido
(corresponding to the Andean part of the Pueblo-Andid race of Imbelloni) would be of Polynesian mixture on Huarpids, especially; the second, called Centralid (the Isthmids of Imbelloni), by mixture of the same Polynesians, on ancient Brasilids. The Polynesian emigration towards America would have taken place about five hundred years before the Era. They would have been carriers of megalithic culture.
"12. racial type Ándido. The Ándidos constitute a type that is a product of their adaptation to mountain life. Their stature is short, approximately 160 cm. in men and 145 cm. in women. Their convex chest and short limbs in relation to the trunk, clearly denote their mountain origin. The head is short (horizontal cephalic index, about 82), the cranial vault medium (average height index, about 84), face and nose also medium, somewhat more elongated in the center and North than in the South. Especially among the central Andids of Bolivia and Peru, the physiognomy is characteristic: accentuated features, not very pronounced cheekbones and protruding and elongated nose, often with an aquiline shape. They are the bearers of the high Andean cultures.
"13. racial type Centralid. This is the most brachycephalic racial type in America. The Centralids are of short stature (about 157 cm. males and 143 cm. females) and of short head (cephalic index, about 85) and low (average height index, about 81). The face is medium-sized, with little pronounced contours and smooth relief. The nose is close to broad (nasal index, close to 80). In their general appearance they are more graceful than the neighboring types and lack the roundness of forms of the Brazilids, with which they border to the southeast.
"Centralids and Andids are of undoubtedly metamorphic formation. The somatic and physiognomic differences that exist between them must be considered as a consequence of two distinct factors. The first is the different population that the elements of the Polynesian current found in both areas: predominance of dolicoids of inferior culture in the Andean; of brachyloids of medium culture in the Central American. The second factor, on the other hand, comes from the preponderance of the Polynesian among the Andean - which is where the last immigrant element settled - and the primacy of the sub-Asiatic among the Central American, where the Polynesian influences arrived only in a mediate way. The numerous physiognomies that Mochica art -on the one hand- and Mayan sculpture -on the other- have preserved for us, clearly indicate the differences and are, at the same time, a good proof of the pre-Hispanic existence of both types." (Canals Frau, Prehistory of America, 1950).
We now have complete two broad racial classifications of the American Indians. In spite of the differences in some names (Sílvidos for Plánidos, Brasilidos for Amazónidos, Centralidos for Ístmidos, etc.), the repartition of the races, made by Imbelloni and Canals Frau coincide in most cases, because both are based mainly on the classification of von Eickstedt, who in turn followed other earlier classifiers.
Before proceeding further, it is important to remind the reader that the measurement of skull height in Imbelloni and Canals Frau is completely different, as he will have noticed from their resulting numbers. Imbelloni gives much higher skull height indices, because he uses the vertetico-transverse index; Canals Frau gives a combination of this with the vertetico-longitudinal index (a combination that does not convince us at all). Such is the origin of the differences, but this does not alter the fact that what both authors call "tall skulls" are really tall and short skulls, respectively.
Significant is the difference in the origin of the Mongoloids in America, according to both authors. For Imbelloni, all the American mongoloids (except the Columbidae and Artidae) would be of transpacific origin, while Canals Frau points out the important mongoloid contribution through Bering, in its second population stream.
But what interests us most in these classifications of the American Indians, with respect to the subject we are dealing with in the work, is the possibility of the existence of bearded men in the different races. In principle, all the Australoids presented by both authors should have a fairly abundant beard, but in Imbelloni this does not exist at all and he does not bother to explain it; in Canals Frau, it only appears in his Huárpidos, without clarifying to us at all why his four remaining Australoid races have lost their beards. The truth is that they could have done so with a relatively good chance of success, insinuating that the continued subsequent mixing with the Mongoloids, within the American continent, weakened this trait until it disappeared, but it seems that this or another explanation did not occur to them.
The races of transpacific origin, of Imbelloni, being more and more mongolized by mixing, naturally do not have beards, but in Canals Frau things are different: his Andids and Centralids, even if they were mixed, should have some beard, since they would be of white Polynesian origin, but it happens that the Polynesians lack beards in their majority (although there are some very bearded ones), in spite of the Hindu origin that the author assigns to them. The Andids, especially, should be quite bearded, due to their mixture with the Huarpids, in which this character is found and which, consequently, should have been intensified.
5. Comments on previous authors
Before continuing, it would be interesting to refer with a few brief words to the procedures used by the previous authors for their presentation and distribution of the indigenous races.
Ales Hrdliçka has been, possibly, the researcher who measured more American Indian skulls, because according to a reference -which we do not know if it is true- he measured about ten thousand. We, personally, have measured about five hundred, most of which we found in ancient caves yy burials in Bolivia. All of them, with the exception of only two, belonged already to agricultural levels that began from a thousand years before the Era. Consequently, we have experience and can speak quite knowledgeably on the subject of measurements.
Imbelloni and Canals Frau undoubtedly measured several hundred skulls of ancient Indians -especially from Argentina- where, for our part, we have only measured a few dozen. Therefore, they would also have direct experience.
The problem is, what do you do with these measurements? Normally, in these studies, we start by looking at ourselves in the face of
to a series of skulls or living individuals to be measured. And also normally, if not almost always, this series (which may or may not be large) does not present any homogeneity. Usually, two or more different types of skulls appear in it, sometimes more than half a dozen, distinguishable by their shape and other characteristics, as can be seen with the naked eye. Whoever has enough experience in the case can calculate with very little error the possible indexes resulting from the measurements to be made, as well as classify in advance the various forms that appear. This preliminary examination is of great importance to form a first idea of what is to be studied.
But this is what is generally not done, on the assumption that a supposed objective impartiality must be maintained. Everything is measured as a whole and the results are taken from the whole, that is to say, the procedure of the so-called mean terms is used. Therefore, no minority existing in such a series can appear in these mean terms, and worse still, the majority (which may well not be a majority, if three or four different forms are found in the series studied) is completely deformed by the resulting contradictory indexes in the minorities, indexes which may be greater or less than the final mean terms. Here is an example, taken from the reality of a study done some time ago in Bolivia. A fairly large series of individuals was measured, with heads presenting us with two different basic shapes, more or less in the same quantity. The first type had a cephalic index between 75 and 79; the other, an index between 82 and 85. The final mean term resulted in an average of just over 80 and that was taken as the final result of the measurement, although none of the individuals measured had that cephalic index.
We include the above as a general criticism of the system. Hundreds of series of skulls and living individuals were measured in this way. As a general result of the system, when it comes to doing a comprehensive classification work, only the final results, their mean terms, are consulted and applied to the map. Fortunately, the individual measurements taken from skulls or living individuals are generally published,
but it also happens frequently that nothing more than the final results of the mean terms are published. Thus, in a work that should have been valuable, on skulls from Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego -where the existence of four different racial forms was discriminated- only the mean term of those four types was published as the final result, with results that, undoubtedly, did not correspond to any of the skulls studied.
Worse still. We proceed with preconceptions about what should exist in each geographical area (a geographical area which, moreover, always varies somewhat in each author) and extend to the whole the results obtained in a few areas. An example of the pernicious consequences of a preconception can be seen in what has happened with the Patagonians or Tehuelches. D'Orbigny measured a series of them and concluded that they were round-headed (brachycephalic) and the Patagonians were classified as brachycephalic for a time; then, several series of ancient skulls were obtained - prior to the Araucanian invasion and influence in Patagonia - which turned out to be dolichocephalic (with elongated heads). Since then, the Patagonians were classified as dolichocephalic and the more recent Patagonians were explained as of Araucanian admixture (despite the fact that the resulting index was higher than that of the Araucanians). Other authors assumed that this was the result of cephalic deformation, a widespread custom in the north of the area, but it happens that the few Patagonians today have a very brachycephalic head and are not deformed.
The latter is quite clear. About thirty years ago, in expeditions organized by the Ethnographic Museum of the University of Buenos Aires, the few and last living Patagonians were sought and measured. They were less than a dozen, considered absolutely pure. All of them were found to have a strongly brachycephalic index, much higher than that of the Araucanians. This happened at a time when cephalic deformation was no longer practiced anywhere in the area. How was this fact explained? Simply, it was not explained; therefore, they have continued to speak of the Patagonians as having a dolichocephalic head.
Hrdliçka resorted to the system of mean terms and obtained the result we have presented. Von Eickstedt, for his part, used the same system and, using geographic-cultural zones previously established by other authors, increased the number of indigenous races, by means of the same procedure. Here it should be noted that Hrdliçka, as we have seen, considers the Brazilian Indians that Imbelloni and Canals Frau use to form their Amazonid or Brasilid races as part of his primitive dolichocephalic group, but our two authors cited above magically transform them into brachioids, since they must be so, on the assumption that they have a strong Mongolian admixture. At the same time, both authors carefully forgot that von Eickstedt defined these peoples as having a Europoid physiognomy....
Although they follow von Eickstedt - who, basically, uses geographical and cultural zones to establish his races - Imbelloni and Canals Frau make small modifications in the regions whose cranial series they have studied in particular. Then, each of them presents us with a new race: Imbelloni the Fuéguida, which he separates from von Eickstedt's Láguida; Canals Frau, his Huárpida race. These racial separations have been the main contribution of these authors to American raciology. Besides, there are their interpretations, since both present us with several of these races arriving to our continent by the transpacific way (in this, Canals Frau, follows Imbelloni), something that von Eickstedt denies, since he determines for all the American population an exclusive origin by Bering, following Hrdliçka.
Imbelloni, to establish his Fuéguida race -separated from the Láguida- basically used only four skulls from one and the other set, separating them from their respective series which, naturally, were much larger and, we suppose, with other very different skulls. Canals Frau used very few skulls, -less than a dozen, counting those he added later, chosen from different series- to establish his Huarpid race. In this way such races were established.
Apart from the criticism that the use of so little material deserves, we note that here both authors have resorted to an anthropological procedure completely different from that of the treatise.
before: of the mean terms and the geographical and cultural zones. A similar procedure is undoubtedly the one we have to use to carry out our research, but at the same time we will have to put into practice an absolutely different basic interpretative criterion. This different criterion begins by discarding the geographical and cultural zones, in order to focus on the biological facts represented by the different forms presented to us by the skulls and the respective heads of living beings. In this it must be recognized that it is much easier to look at the cranial forms than at the living forms, since we can see and measure the skulls many times and not the living beings.
In addition, or perhaps primarily, there are a number of historical and current reports that point to the existence - in various and numerous places in America - of indigenous individuals (sometimes even populations) with Caucasoid-type physical characteristics. Most of these references compare the Indians to whom they refer with the southern Europeans, dark and brown-haired, but there is also abundant information that reveals the existence of Indians with blond hair - and even red hair - and at the same time the presence of various Indians with light eyes, blue, it is said directly, with some frequency. The most serious anthropologists, for example Hrdliçka, do not cite this information at all, not even to deny it. However, some of the informants are as respectable as we could ask for. One of them is Captain Cook, who mentions light-skinned Indians with blond and reddish hair, on the shores of English Columbia, at a time when the region was visited for the first time by Europeans, so there is no room for any assumption of miscegenation.
Chapter II
Bearded Americans, in various authors
1. A different panorama: Whites in America, according to P. Rivet
The French researcher Paul Rivet, known especially for his linguistic comparisons between the Australian and Patagonian languages and the Melanesian and Californian languages, achieved greater public diffusion with his work The Origins of American Man, of which many translations and editions have been made. We use a Mexican edition revised and enlarged by the author, made in 1960 (Rivet's original work was published in 1943).
Rivet presents the American population as the product of four distinct origins, two by land and two by inter-Pacific sea. The inter-Pacific comparisons were made by Rivet, especially on the basis of linguistic facts, to which he later added cultural elements and some craniometric racial comparisons. As the Asian migrations by way of Bering were taken directly from Hrdliçka, Rivet's contribution refers only to oceanic migrations, a point on which he must be considered the most important modern precursor.
The summary of Rivet's four migrations is as follows:
1^(@)1^{\circ} . Asian emigration through Bering, with 10,000 years, etc., as developed by Hrdliçka.
2^(2)2^{2} . Australian emigration, passing through Antarctica, with cranial and linguistic comparisons with the Patagonians.
and Onas. This migration would have taken place about 4,000 years B.C. C.
32. Melanesian emigration, sailing across the Pacific to California and continental spread from there. Cranial comparisons with the Laced race and linguistic comparisons with the Californian Hoka family. Antiquity of this migration, about 2,000 years BC. C.
4^(2)4^{2} . Asian emigration through Bering, with Eskimos, as in Hrdliçka.
Actually, these comparisons do not matter much to us here, but we will not fail to point out that, in your second comparison of Australians with Onas and Patagonians, as the Australians are bearded (the same as the Melanesians of the South), this trait should have been abundantly present in the aforementioned peoples of the South of the continent. However, we know of only two or three cases of bearded Patagonians and none that are Onas.
We are more interested in chapter VII of Rivet's work, which does not appear in the first editions. It is entitled, ElE l White Element and the Pygmies in America and its first four pages are devoted to the presence of the white element in America. We reproduce them here, though without the footnotes, about their sources. "Simultaneously and independently of each other, Thor.
Heyerdahl and Jean Poirier have assembled an imposing collection of
traditions and evidence concerning the existence in the Americas of the
individuals, or groupings of individuals, who present in their
teguments, on their hair and sometimes on the iris, a coloration
which differs from the usual pigmentation of the Indian, as well as
of individuals remarkable for a facial hairiness that contrasts with
the absence of beard and moustache in the vast majority of Indians.
"The blond element has been noted among the indigenous people of
Notka of Vancouver Island, among the Mandan of Missuri, among the Notka of Vancouver Island, among the
the Indians of Mexico, among the Waiwai, the oyariculet, the emerillones, the
of the Guianas, the Huaharibo, Waika or Shiriná, the Motilones from
Venezuela, the Pauishana of the Rio Branco, the Nahukwa, the Bororo,
the Bakairi, the Botocudos of Brazil, the Chachapoyas Indians of Peru,
the Indians of Chile. Some mummies from the coast
Peruvian (around Lima, Nazca and Paracas) as well as the Chilean coast, have hair that varies in color from blond to brown, wavy and tied with ribbons. Pre-Columbian iconography confirms these facts. Heyerdahl has counted more than one hundred characters with light brown hair among the 275 depicted in Aubin's Codex Tonalámatl. A fresco from the Temple of the Warriors, at Chichén Itzá, depicts a fight between the natives and the assailants who arrived by sea, who have white skin and blond hair. The vases from Chimbote and Trujillo (Peru) represent black-skinned warriors confronting light-skinned warriors. On two vases from Puno and Santiago de Cao, respectively, near Trujillo, black-skinned and white-skinned masons can be seen working together on a construction site.
"Documents relating to bearded men abound in the pre-Columbian representations of Mexico (Tabasco, Guerrero, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Valley of Mexico, Yucatan, Chiapas), Guatemala, Honduras (Copan), El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama (Cocle), Upper Peru (Tiahuanaco region) and Lower Peru, where they are frequent since the origins of the Chimu civilization and perhaps since those of the Nazca civilization. The Mayan god Itzamna is often represented with a moustache and beard.
"On the other hand, travelers have repeatedly pointed out the presence of bearded men among the Indian populations, without this character being explained by an interbreeding with the white invaders (Plate XIII, a).
"Can the element of light skin and hair and the beard element we have just mentioned refer to the same ethnic type? It is very probable but, as Jean Poirier rightly points out, iconographic documents that present both characters together are rare. The fresco of the Temple of the Warriors of Chichen Itza sin\sin is certainly the most typical example that we can cite of white-skinned, blond and bearded individuals. As for the light-skinned warriors represented on the Chimbote vase discussed above, the certainty is much less. Indeed, some ornaments placed on the lips or nose can produce the illusion that it is a beard or a mustache.
"The truth is that, in many regions, the tradition preserved the memory of white and bearded men who had preceded the current populations, especially in Peru, in the region of Guamanga and in the islands of Titicaca.
"The origin of this light-colored and bearded ethnic element.
seems to be sought in Asia. Indeed, ethnologists have pointed out the presence of a human type similar to the one we are dealing with, in Armenia, India, Turkestan, Mongolia, Siberia, Hainan and Japan where the affinities of the Ainians with the whites have been underlined. Their antiquity is proved by the presence of a representative of the Cro-Magnon race in the Upper Quaternary deposits of Chou-kou-tien, near Peking, because it is certain that the men of this ethnic type belonged to the white race.
"Everything leads us to believe that this white element followed the same route as the Asiatic emigrations to reach America and that, either separately or together with them, it reached the New World through the Bering Strait and the Aleutian Islands. Contrary to the opinion of Jean Poirier, we do not think that the Normans have contributed a part, even a secondary one, to the formation of this white and bearded element. Their penetration on the American Continent has been much less profound than some documents seem to suppose." (Rivet, Ob. cit., pp. 142-145).
The author's conclusions are somewhat dismaying, due to the incomprehension he shows at the end of what is quoted, without detracting from the valuable summary of the case.
At no time does he notice that he is faced with several different human forms, with beard and moustache, in addition to blond hair, etc., although, elementarily, the cultural conditions of their bearers should have given him, from the beginning, a good indication of this. Manifestly, according to his own words, there is a primitive bearded type, of a rather Aino type - which undoubtedly entered in very ancient times through Bering - which of course, among other things, could never have blond hair. This type rarely appears in the indigenous iconography; as for its living representatives, many of them are distinguished by the fleeing chin. There is another type, or rather others, that appears abundantly in this iconography: paintings in codices, murals, sculptures and ceramics. It is typical of important personages, gods, kings, great priests and warriors, that is, the high indigenous ruling class. Our author, not understanding this difference - as is the case with other authors - brings them all together in the same type.
racial race and makes them enter at an indeterminate time through the Bering Strait. In his comparisons, it is remarkable this reunion of the Armenian and Aina races, as if it were a single white race.
But there is something extremely important in the whole of his exposition. It is that, in order to sustain the existence of this unique white race in America, he is obliged to present us with a series of more or less ancient references, from old chroniclers and travelers, who normally speak to us of individuals, not of races or homogeneous populations, provided with the beard or the other features we are dealing with. This is undoubtedly the path we must follow in order to clarify the problem we are dealing with, both for ancient times and for the present.
2. The "White Indians", according to Jacques de Mahieu
The author we are dealing with now, contrary to what Paul Rivet states in the last lines quoted (where he tries to diminish the possible influence of the Norman colonizers of Greenland in the formation and diffusion of the bearded whites in pre-Columbian America) places himself at the other extreme, that is, he increases to a great extent the importance of the Normans, recognizing them as practically the only source from which all the American bearded men would have come, which falsifies all knowledge.
In order to do that yy , since it is not possible to locate the Normans in America before the end of the eleventh century, he is forced more than once to deny the proven antiquity of the fact of the presence of the beard and other features in American iconography, for example in Mexico, where the existence of the bearded god Quetzalcoatl appears on a Teotihuacan vase shortly after the Era. For our author, the god Quetzalcoatl would be of Norman origin yy , therefore, of a millennium later. The same thing happens with the remains of the civilization of Tiahuanaco, whose real beginnings correspond to the Tiahuanaco civilization.
According to his interpretative ideas, Mahieu transfers the entire Tiahuanaco civilization to a period where only the endings are found, that is, to the 13th century.
But to criticize this is out of our subject. What matters to us here is one of his works, entitled The Great Journey of God-Soh, in which we find a chapter, II: The White Indians. In it, the author gives us important information on the subject we are dealing with, and which at the beginning are complementary to the text of Paul Rivet, already quoted. For this reason, we will quote it quite extensively in several of its parts.
To begin with:
2. The white and blond Indians: testimonies.
"From the dawn of the Discovery to the present day - for the American territory has not yet been fully exploited - conquerors, 'travelers', as it was then called, and scientists have often been astonished to find, in Amerindian tribes, individuals who, by one or more of their essential anthropological characteristics, if not from every point of view, resembled Nordic Europeans. In some cases one could suspect some incidence of a process of mestization with post-Columbian whites. But, in others, such a possibility was excluded, as they were tribes that had until then been totally distant from any contact with the new colonizers. We are going to mention, going from North to South, the main data we have in this respect and, for reasons that will clearly appear in Chapter III, we will add some indications of the same nature relative to Oceania. We will limit ourselves to following the works of Jean Poirier and Thor Heyerdahl.
"The first testimonies to be cited, referring to present-day Labrador, that is to say, to a region situated to the north of Vinland proper and Marklandia and opposite Hellulandia (Newfoundland), concern 'white Eskimos'. Louis Jolliet who explored the region in the 16th century, writes: 'There are found along the Labrador coasts a great number of Eskimos... They are of tall stature and have a white face and body, and curly hair. Each has several women, very white and well-shaped: their hair reaches to the ground. They are very skilled in sewing. Like the men, they wear the skins of sea lions.
and they have for anything much industry'. Brouage, son-in-law and deputy of Courtemanche, Commander of the North Coast, had to contend, in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, with these 'Eskimos' of such a peculiar type. He describes them as white, bearded men.
"Samuel de Champlain, the great French explorer of Canada, alludes to white Indians settled, at the beginning of the 17th century, west of the Great Lakes: 'The savages with whom we had contact... told us several times that some prisoners of a hundred leagues told them that there are peoples similar to us by their whiteness and other things, having seen by them locks of hair of these peoples, which is very blond, whom they highly esteem for what they say to be like us. I can only think about this that they are a more civilized people than they are and that they say they resemble us'.
"Stranger, at first sight, is that 'white Indians' have been found on the Pacific coast of Canada. A removal of Vinlanders by the overland route, over a distance of some 4,000 km , is difficult to admit. But we have to remember that, at the time of Scandinavian colonization, the northern climate was much less cold than today and that, therefore, the northern transoceanic route must have been open for several months of the year. The incredible resemblance between the large war canoes of the Northwest Indians and the Viking ships (Plate I) reinforces the hypothesis of sea voyages from Greenland or Vineland to the Pacific.
"Captain Cook, the first post-Columbian European who came in contact with the Nootka tribes, on the ocean coast of Vancouver Island, says of these Indians: 'The whiteness of the skin seems almost equal to that of the Europeans, and rather reminds one of the pale tint which distinguishes those of our southern nations. Their children, whose skin has never been covered with paint, are also equal to ours in whiteness.' Cook further adds, speaking of the tribes of Prince William Sound, on the Alaska, that 'the complexion of some of the women, and of the children, is white, without any mingling of red.'
"Confirming Cook's testimony is the travel account of Captain Dixon, who writes a few years later: 'As to their complexion, it is not easy to determine what color they are; but if I may judge from the few people I saw tolerably clean, those Indians are very little darker than Europeans generally.' Vancouver, speaking of the Indians of Burke's Channel, in the same region, is still more precise: 'From the nobility of their bearing and the regularity of
their features, they resemble the Nordic Europeans'. He adds that, were it not for the oil and paint, 'there is good reason to think that their color would have been very little different from that of European farmers who are constantly exposed to the inclemency and variations of the climate'.
"Later, Scouler comes to the same conclusions concerning the Haida tribes of the Queen Charlotte Islands: 'Their complexion, when washed and unpainted, is as white as that of the people of southern Europe.' And Niblack, speaking of the Indians of the same region, says: 'As to complexion, both sexes are strangely light in color. It is by no means due to interbreeding with the whites... The Haidas are markedly lighter-skinned than the others, but even the dark tint is entirely apparent, and exposure to the sun always strengthens it.' Other travelers -La Pérouse, Maurrel, Merares, Marchand, etc. - confirm those already mentioned and define the Indians of the northwest coast as of pure white race.
"We find a similar picture if we consider the Indian tribes of the Center and South of the present United States. We have already referred, in the previous chapter, to the Mandans of the Missouri, studied at length in the XVII, XVIII and XIX centuries by travelers (Kurz, Wied, Catlin, Henning, La Vérendrye, etc.) who noted among them the existence of a strong minority of individuals with blond, red and brown hair, and blue and gray eyes. But this is not a unique case, far from it. The Kiarvas, the Kaskaias and, above all, the Lee-Panis of the Upper Missouri appeared, even in the last century, as blond-haired, blue-eyed whites. Verrill mentions concurrent accounts by Dampire, Ringrose, Esquemeling and many other travelers.
"Neither the Conquistadors nor, logically, later explorers found Europoid types among the Indians of Mexico. But local traditions explain this lacuna satisfactorily: "On the date Chicunahui Tochli, says Prince Ixtlilxochitl that we quote according to Goupil, was found in the mountain a young white boy, with very beautiful blond hair. He was taken to the palace. Topilzin (the last Toltec king, of 'long beard between gray and red', according to the chronicler Father Diego Durán. N. of the A.) judged this finding to be ominous, although he himself was white and bearded, and gave the order to return the child to the place where he had been found. But, immediately, the head of this one fell in putrefaction and spread an unbearable odor, as a result of which a plague broke out and decimated the population'. Goupil adds that, then a special law was promulgated, which remained
The law was in force until the arrival of the Spaniards, by virtue of which every blond child was sacrificed at the age of five.
"If we have, as regards the population of Central America, only indications, definite but imprecise, about the 'white Indians' of the Isthmus of Darien, the data abound as soon as we approach South America and, in the first place, the Guianas. Coudreau says of the Waiswais: "It is the most beautiful Indian race I have ever seen. The orange-blond, blue-eyed types are not few among them... The color of their skin is light yellow and has none of the brownish red of the other tribes.' The Dutch ethnographer De Groeje, quoted by Poirier, mentions 'grayish green eyes, with some brownish or blue'. In an unpublished memoir, also quoted by Poirier, the engineer geographer J. Hurault writes: 'Some claim that white Indians with blue eyes have never existed... We can make the matter somewhat more precise... In the course of a mission, in 1935, we met in the tribe of the Emerillon, in the Upper Tampoc, an almost white woman, with blue eyes and black hair. It was indicated to us that this Indian had been collected near the mouth of the Ouaqui River... The observations we were able to make on the women encountered allow us to affirm that they really belong to a particular race. Their skin is white, almost milky. The eyes are blue. The hair is hard and black'. Also concerning Guiana, Crevaux, mentions that, in the Upper Maroni, a savage tribe, the Bonis, pursued by the Dutch and French, found a band of men collecting iguana eggs. They were of tall stature, pale complexion and blond hair and beard. They resembled in all but dress the Dutch. Several authors, says Poirier, noted the light eyes of wayacules and triometesems, also in the Guianas.
"There is no lack of similar information about the Puinaves, Bacairis, Bororos and Nahuacas, of Colombia and adjacent areas, the Arawaks, Botocudos and Nambicuaras, of the Amazon, and a tribe of the Envira River, also in Brazil, which Stegelmann discovered in 1903 and whose members had light red hair.
"The Arawaks deserve a separate place in this enumeration, for they are referred to in a letter sent in 1502 or 1504 to the Catholic Monarchs by Angelo Trevisano, who describes them as of fair complexion, with long hair and beards. These 'white Indians' still exist in the Amazon: they are the Waikás of the island of Maracá, in the Veljo Veneno River, white, with high foreheads, large eyes and long, soft, light brown hair. This is how they were seen in 1955 by Marcel Homet, whose testimony is reliable, although his theories are not. Unfortunately, we do not know of any studies on this subject.
"Colonel Fawcett, who was not to return from his last expedition in search of the 'lost cities' of the Sierra de Purima, in the Alto Xingu, had also encountered, in 1925, 'white Indians', red-haired and blue-eyed, and states categorically in his travel notes: 'They are not albinos.' [...]
"Further north, in Venezuela, the presence of a group of white motilones is reported, whose hair has the color of linen or straw characteristic of Scandinavian peoples. Several authors, among them Thor Heyerdahl, mention the study that would have dedicated to them, in 1926, a certain Harris. Unfortunately, we have not been able to find him.
"With respect to Peru, testimonies abound, beginning with Pedro Pizarro who notes that the members of the Inca aristocracy had whiter skin than the Spaniards and hair the color of ripe wheat. Pizarro adds that the Indians considered white and blond individuals 'sons of the gods of Heaven'. The ancient documents compiled by Izaguirre mention on several occasions 'these white and blond infidels in the manner of us'.
"Continuing to the south, we find Frezier's reference to white and blond Indians, which is confirmed by José Toribio Medina who, citing Molina's Compendio de historia civil, alludes to a group of Indians in the province of Boroa as 'white and blond without being mixed' and, according to Rosales, in Conquista espiritual de Chile, to the Chonos who 'were completely white and blond, (due to the) coldness of the land and proximity of the pole'. Even in Tierra del Fuego Skottsberg was able to note the brown hair of the Alacalufes, in contrast with the black hair of the other Fuegians, and the dark blue color of the children's eyes." (Mahieu, Ob. cit., pp. 47-53).
Some comments. Our author uses, in his description, the same two basic documentary sources of Paul Rivet, which we have not obtained. With respect to the "white Eskimos", Labrador, etc., it is not difficult to accept for their origin an early mixture with the Vikings and later Normans; but the thing changes with respect to the natives of English Columbia and Queen Charlotte Islands, Nootkas, Haidas, etc., in spite of the author's attempt to relate them to the Vikings as far as the Vikings are concerned, in spite of the author's attempt to relate them to the Vikings in terms of the similarity of their vessels, a similarity that does not exist, since the local indigenous vessels were large monoxilas (up to more than 20 meters long) and the
Viking vessels were made of plank. These whites of English Columbia must have been of transpacific origin, similar to those who went to the Pacific coasts of western Mexico and the Andean zone. In addition, and as on other occasions, they must have been minorities who stood out especially because they were among the indigenous ruling class.
The Mandans of the prairies and their white-type characteristics, especially the reddish hair, have been mentioned by numerous authors and travelers, more than one of whom considered them to be descendants of the Welsh and even compared their language.
The "white Indians of the Darien" belong to the Cuna tribe and are not truly white but albinos, something well manifested by their eyes, which cannot see the light well and are red, in the iris, by transparency of the blood, while their hair is naturally white, for lack of pigment.
About the various tribes of the Guianas and Amazonia, mentioned with their characteristics, there are numerous similar data spread by various travelers. Let us remember that von Eickstedt attributed to the amazonids a "Europoid physiognomy". As for the waikas and botocudos, they are the remains of the most primitive populations of the continent.
The data with respect to Peru are interesting, since Pedro Pizarro, a conqueror of the first moment, who observed well, points out that it was the members of the aristocracy - the Inca ruling class - who had light skin and blond hair. The same is said of the Indians of Chachapoyas and Puno, NW. of Lake Titicaca. Also in the chroniclers we find references to a people of "huiracochas", whites, who would have built the city of Tiahuanaco and would have been destroyed by Aymara-speaking Indians.
As for the Araucanians of the "Boroa" group, as white and blond and even reddish-skinned "like the Frisians", we find reports in several ancient authors and even in La Araucana.
3. The "White Indians" of Paraguay, according to de Mahieu.
We omit the fragment of chapter II of Mahieu where he speaks of white Polynesians and Antis of Bolivia, part of whom we have personally studied and who are not as "white" as claimed, despite the fact that the name of the Yuracaré tribe means "white-man". Certainly, they are a little lighter than the common Andean Indians, but they are not white. We have been with them and have photos.
Our author devotes long pages to describe the Guayakí of the interior of Paraguay, towards the Brazilian border. Their white color has been cited by numerous authors. To this we can add an abundant beard and moustache and a frequent complete baldness, even before the age of thirty. For us, it is a very primitive American group, with clear Australoid features, but it is better to see first what Mahieu tells us:
"5. The 'White Indians': the Guayakis
"An endangered race, the Guayakis live in the virgin subtropical rainforest of eastern Paraguay. They remain, according to estimates, between 300 and 500, divided into small groups. They walk around totally naked and feed on game, wild fruit and wild honey. Their cultural level, Neolithic, is very low, and it seems that they practice a certain ritual cannibalism. The territory that they occupy, or rather that they travel without ceasing, because they are nomadic, is uncontrolled yy , in their borders badly delimited, bloody clashes often take place.
"The Guayakis have attracted the attention of ethnologists and important studies have been devoted to their way of life and the dialect, with Guarani roots, which they speak. The same has not been true of their somatic characteristics, except for a few measurements taken from an insufficient number of subjects. The ethnologists in question could not, however, fail to mention some physical aspects, non-existent in all Amerindian races, and especially the white color of the skin of most of them. Of the five known groups, four are composed of white Guayakis and one of brown Guayakis. There are very good reasons to think that these last ones come from the
mestization of white Guayakis with a group of Mataco Indians who, having escaped from the Argentine reduction of Santa Ana, took refuge in Guayakí territory at the end of the last century.
"The differential characteristics of the white Guayakis led us to consider the possibility that they were descendants of Aryans of European origin. To confirm or reject this working hypothesis, the Instituto de Ciencia del Hombre, of Buenos Aires, sent, at our request, in January 1970, a mission exclusively in charge of verifying it. Most ethnologists had previously been able to work with some ease: in 1961, in fact, the Paraguayan government had succeeded in establishing a group of white Guayakis and a group of brown Guayakis at the Arroyo Morotí camp, near the village of San Juan Nepomuceno: about sixty adults in all. The high mortality, due to the change of diet - cassava and corn - and the contact with the local population, [...] recently made them transfer the survivors further north, in the region of San Joaquín [...].
"It should be noted that the study in question was carried out under excellent scientific conditions. The population of the camp, which divides its time between the village and the jungle, has regained its health, although the manioc and maize which still form the basis of its diet cause, in its members, a permanent intestinal bloating. It has been enriched with elements coming from wild groups of the region. On the other hand, all the subjects studied were pure Guayakis. [...] No crossbreeding with individuals of white race has been able to take place, therefore.
"The first verification made by the Mission is that white Guayakis and brown Guayakis offer the same somatic characters, except for the color of the skin and the Mongoloid features of the latter. They are individuals of short stature: 1.57 m , on average, among males (maximum, 1,61m1,61 \mathrm{~m} ; minimum, 1.43 m) and 1,49m1,49 \mathrm{~m} among females (maximum, 1,56m1,56 \mathrm{~m} ; minimum, 1.43 ). The legs are relatively long and the trunk, extremely developed: 85 cm of thoracic perimeter in males, which would be equivalent to 97,5cm97,5 \mathrm{~cm} in an individual of 1,80m1,80 \mathrm{~m} . Let us note, by way of comparison, that the average for the Nordic Aryan race is, for individuals of the latter stature, 93,5cm93,5 \mathrm{~cm} . The cephalometric index of the Guayakis averages 81.4 among males (maximum, 86.7 ; minimum 76.7) and 82.8 among females (maximum, 86.1; minimum, 78.3). The race oscillates, therefore, between mesocephaly in males and sub-brachycephaly in females. From this point of view, it is situated between the Alpine Aryans (84.3 for males and 84.2 for females) and the Nordic Aryans (79.2 and 78.3, respectively).
"The male guayakis have a genital apparatus, of a conformation similar to that of the Nordic Aryans (elongated penis, in particular), much more developed than that of the Amerindians. They are provided with an abundant hairy system, in the legs and arms and, especially, in the face. They shave carefully, but the Mission had the good fortune to be able to photograph a subject with a splendid beard (see Plate II). This is not a particular case: examination of the faces of the others shows that they were all extremely hairy. Now then: the Indians are generally hairless and those who make an exception, almost always elderly, have only a sparse beard, and only on the chin. The Guayaki women have very hairy legs, unlike the Indians.
In addition to this hair system, characteristic of the Aryan races, males have a strong tendency towards baldness (see Plate II), a phenomenon that is totally unknown to Amerindian populations.
"The skin of the white Guayakis does not differ at all in color from that of the Europeans, and many women have the milky complexion of the Nordic women. Hair color ranges from black to light brown, often with red highlights. Eye color ranges from black to light brown. Older individuals - but they are few - have gray or white hair and beard, which is not the case among the Indians. In general, the hair seems to be as fine as that of the Europeans and some males have wavy hair. The analysis of the samples brought by the Mission is being carried out at the time of writing, but the Laboratory of Pathological Anatomy of the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Buenos Aires, which has been kind enough to take charge of it, has already sent us its first results and these are highly significant: the hairs of five samples studied have an ovoid section in the European way and not rounded as is the case for the Indians.
"Facial features offer considerable variety, signs of degeneration aside. Some males could circulate in any region of Europe without attracting attention. Others have the appearance of Japanese of the upper ethnic stratum, as is also the case with almost all females. Still others could pass for Polynesians. Finally, some of the elders look like Aino. These similarities are not the fruit of chance. Japanese, Polynesians yy , to a lesser extent, Ainos have a common origin: they are the products of crossbreeding between whites and Mongoloids. Let us add that the Guayakis often laugh, which, because of their facial muscles, the Indians cannot do.
"The study has therefore left no doubt as to the racial origin of the Guayakis. These are whites mixed with Guarani. The mixture is recent: the lack of homogeneity as regards the features of the face and the cephalometric index proves it.
Abstract
"Who were the primitive whites? The anthropological analysis provides us with precise data on this point. The Guayakis have, in effect, a composite biotype. Below the waist they are longilinear; above, they are brevilinear respiratory. They have the hypertrophied thorax of the Quichua and Aymara Indians of the Bolivian Altiplano, but by no means their short legs. There are, therefore, only two possibilities: either the Guayakis are brevilinear highlanders who, in the plains, have acquired long legs; or they are longilinear who, at high altitudes, saw their thorax develop. The first hypothesis is to discard, because the Guayakis have nothing more than the trunk that brings them closer to the Andean Indians. Therefore, they are descended from long-limbed whites - like the Nordic people - settled for a long time in the Altiplano, where the low atmospheric pressure causes an increase in thoracic capacity. What considerably reinforces this conclusion is that the word guayakí is Quichua and means 'whitish of the plain' (from huailla, whitish, and k^(')k^{\prime} kellu, plain: the double lll l and the yy are pronounced the same way; the ey la ise are confused, in Quichua, into a single vowel). It would not have been possible to find a more appropriate name for white inhabitants of the mountain refugees in the jungle, at the foot of the Cordillera. There, in an environment and climate hostile to any civilization, these men degenerated and then, recently, they became mestizos, driven by a biological phenomenon that is also noted among the Waikas of the Amazon: the numerical insufficiency of female births. These two negative factors explain both the short stature and the low cultural level of the Guayakís". (Mahieu, Ob. cit., pp. 57-61).
New comments. The author assumes that the Guayaquíes studied are the final product of the mestization of a Viking group that would have arrived earlier to the Altiplano of Bolivia, where they would have built the civilization of Tiahuanaco; after being defeated by the Andean Indians, they migrated to Paraguay. In Paraguay, they would have recently mixed with Guarani Indians - of Mongoloid origin - thus forming the current Guayaquí populations.
We are struck, first of all, by the fact that "Las
legs are relatively long and the trunk extremely developed", because the length of the legs is calculated by their relation to the length of the trunk-neck-head, that is, it is a proportion of the total height of the body; consequently, long legs and long trunk cannot exist at the same time. As a forced consequence, the legs are relatively short. All other anthropological references, we consider doubtful. Important are the information on the abundant pilosity, the baldness and the fact that some elders have the appearance of ainos. The mixture with the Guarani and other similar previous people is also undoubted.
On the other hand, that the "Indians", because of their facial muscles, cannot laugh, is a fantasy. As for the translation of the name of the Guayaquíes by Quichua, the truth is that both words are mistranslated by the author: huailla, means "green, fresh" and, by extension, "plain"; kkellu, "yellow", undoubtedly. So the actual translation turns against what the author says.
At the end of the title we are dealing with, the author claims to have found the use of Scandinavian runic letters among the Guayaquians, a subject that is now out of our field of study.
For us, the Guayaquíes, as well as the Waikas, part of the Sirionós of Bolivia, etc., are descendants of the most primitive population layer of the continent, that is to say, australoids of the Aino type. For now, we will leave this point aside.
In a title bearing the number six, corresponding to the same chapter II we are dealing with, Mahieu tells us about "The mummies of the white and blond 'Indians'". He deals especially with ancient mummies, found in the deserts of the Peruvian coast, whose extremely dry climate has allowed their complete preservation, as well as that of other easily perishable remains, for several thousand years. For us, the subject also deserves a separate title.
4. "The mummies of white and blond 'Indians'".
This is the title given by Mahieu to the fragment we are dealing with from his chapter II and of which we will reproduce here only a part. First, the author deals with various ancient mummies, found on the continent; then he tells us, with respect to what interests us:
"In one case, however, the situation has been very different: that of hundreds of mummies discovered, since the end of the last century, in pre-Hispanic tombs in Peru, especially those found, in 1925, in caves in the Paracas peninsula, 18 km from Pisco. These mummies are not representative of the entire population. For if some were naturally preserved because of the dry climate of the region or because they were buried in the sand, most of them were embalmed and belonged, therefore, to members of ruling families of their time.
"The mummies in question correspond to two distinct racial types. Some are undeniably Mongoloid: short stature, flattened face, brachycephalic head and bluish black hair, and belong to individuals similar to the Indians who still populate the region. The others, on the contrary, are of tall stature, elongated face, dolichocephalic head and light hair, with variations that go from brown to straw blond, passing through all shades of red, without artificial discoloration. Whoever saw, without any indication of provenance, the mummy reproduced in Plate VII would not hesitate to attribute it to a woman of Nordic race. It is not a question of mere appearances and the specialists are of the same opinion. Some thought, at first, that the measurements of the face and the skull could come from an artificial deformation as the Peruvian Indians often produced in the children, and that the color of the hair could be the consequence of the action of time. These hypotheses had to be discarded.
"The dolichocephalic head and the elongated face are indeed found in mummies that do not show the unmistakable signs of artificial deformation. The hair, on the other hand, cannot have discolored with time, since such a phenomenon would have also affected the bluish black hair of Mongoloid individuals, which did not happen. Moreover, the hair of white individuals differs not only in color but also in texture: it is 30%30 \% finer and lighter than that of the Indians, when desiccation does not produce a reduction of more than 5%5 \% , and has an oval section, distinct, as we have seen more
above, from the round section of the black hair of the Amerindian Indians.
"The presence, in pre-Columbian Peru, of whites of Nordic biotype cannot, therefore, be doubted. The problem is to know to which epoch the mummies that prove it belong. As always when it comes to pre-Hispanic chronology, opinions vary by hundreds and thousands of years. Thor Heyerdahl wisely mentions that the Carbon 14 method 'suggests' that the Paracas mummies date from 500 B.C., with a margin of error of 200 years plus or minus. Unfortunately, the method in question is in itself very uncertain, since it is based on the hypothesis of a constant intensity of cosmic radiation over time, which not only lacks any scientific confirmation but, moreover, seems highly dubious. On the other hand, we do not know how the dating by Carbon 14 of the Peruvian mummies was carried out and it seems difficult to us that in each case the kilo of organic matter - that is to say of mummy - indispensable, according to the supporters of the method, to obtain a valid result has been burned in each case.
"Two possibilities, then: either the dating is as fanciful as so many others made on different bases, and the blond mummies may belong to descendants of the Scandinavians and Irish of Vinland and Huitramannaland, or to immediate ancestors of theirs, of the same origins; or else the Carbon 14 is right and we would have to admit a Nordic emigration, much earlier than history indicates, which would date back to the XII century BC, when the Hyperboreans invaded central and southern Europe and unsuccessfully attacked Egypt under the reign of Pharaoh Meneptah, of the III ^("a "){ }^{\text {a }} dynasty, retreating in Palestine where the Bible mentions them under the name of Philistines. The Hyperboreans came from Denmark and southern Norway, from where they had been driven out by natural cataclysms. They were exceptional seafarers and had tall ships: it would not be strange if part of them had gone westward by sea. [...]" (Mahieu, Ob. cit., pp. 54 66).
The reports given here about the Peruvian mummies are manifestly accurate, and there is no doubt about them; we have seen a great number of those mummies and most of them perhaps had brown hair, more or less dark; in some of them, they became totally straw-colored, yellowish blond. But the reports that these mummies had tall stature and dolichocephalic head, in addition to the elongated face, are certainly not so much,
We have not measured the mummies we saw in the National Museum of Lima, but we have already said that we have enough experience to appreciate at first sight if a skull or a head is dolichocephalic or brachycephalic. Undoubtedly, most of those mummies had a brachycephalic head, whether they were blond or not, and that apart from whether they were deformed or not. These straw-blond hairs were undoubtedly of Caucasoid individuals, but this does not mean that they were of Nordic origin.
It happens that not only the Nordic peoples have blond hair, in its various shades (by the way they do not have reddish hair; that corresponds to other races, for example, Irish and Finns. Of this color was that of the Mongol emperor of China, Kubilai Khan, who was personally seen and described by Marco Polo). We are interested in another race that, also quite often, has blond hair and pink skin tone. These are the white peoples of Northern Asia Minor, from Anatolia to Persia, whose racial form is variously called: armenoids, asiroids, etc.; their finer form has received the name of Prospectors', "prospectors" of metals. Armenoids and prospectors have a medium or slightly tall stature, their head enters a low limit of brachycephaly and their hair is more or less dark brown, but among them abound people with pink skin, blond hair and blue eyes; these characteristics can be found dissociated, in various individuals. Ancient Hittite and Assyrian sculptures show people of this type, with curly hair.
The same happens with people belonging to the white race of the Balkans, denominated dinaric, whose main nucleus -that is in Yugoslavia- is described as of tall stature, brachycephalic head, brown skin, dark hair and eyes; but there is a variety of it, located more to the North and that extends sporadically from the North of Spain to Turkestan, that has pink skin, blond hair and blue eyes. It differs especially from the Armenoid race in having a straight nose, while the Armenoids have a curved nose.
Returning to the Peruvian mummies, we have already said that their type is not Nordic, but the Armenoid racial type, with all its characteristics, is a very important one.
The racial form of the Peruvian mummies is common in Polynesia, although, undoubtedly, they have been mixed locally in different ways. It is to this racial form that the Peruvian mummies may belong, even though, without doubt, they have been mixed, locally, in different ways. Good proof of this can be found in a neighboring area, a little further north, in the territory of the ancient Mochica civilization, where thousands of huacoretratos represent individuals with Caucasoid features and a prominent aquiline nose.
As for the antiquity of that race, in the Peruvian coast, Mahieu strives to deny the antiquity of the Paracas culture, denying the validity of Carbon 14. But that antiquity cannot be seriously discussed, since the Paracas culture is, in every way, previous to the Era, in the totality of its deposits; as for its beginnings, they date back to 800 BC. In addition, it is good to clarify that the Carbon 14 can give us lower dates than the real ones, if the sample has been infected by later additions of that carbon, but never higher. The pharaoh Meneptah is not of the III dynasty, but of the XVIII, but we suppose that this is a misprint. Regarding the Hyperboreans (no one knows what they were. By the way, the "peoples of the sea" invaded Egypt), they have nothing to do with the Philistines, who would be of Armenoid race, especially.
5. The Mesoamericans and their sculptures, according to Cyrus Gordon
Professor Cyrus Gordon, of Brandeis University, is well known for his interpretations and publications on finds of Phoenician and Hebrew inscriptions that would have appeared in various parts of pre-Columbian America; we have several articles and a work entitled L'Amérique avant Colomb. We have also met him personally at a scientific meeting held in Buenos Aires, in 1971, on the relations of pre-Columbian America with the exterior, by sea.
The first chapter of this work is the one we are most interested in here. It is called, in translation: Los mesoamericanos, representa-
by his own sculptures. We will refer to him without specially quoting his words, that is, without transcribing them, since for the moment we have already gone on too long.
The author tells us that, just as today the United States produces automobiles, the Neolithic peoples have produced innumerable ceramic objects and ancient Mesoamerica, in turn, produced hundreds of thousands of sculptures representing the human beings they naturally knew. It happens that in them, in the oldest ones, they do not represent Amerindian human types - such as Aztecs or Mayans - but show other types: Far Eastern, black Africans, Caucasians yy , above all, Mediterranean types, especially Semites.
The proof of the above is contained in an important work, richly illustrated, by Alexander von Wuthenau, called The Art of Terracotta Pottery in Pre-Columbian Central and South America. Cyrus Gordon analyzes especially a series of illustrations -which are older than 300 B.C.E.- and finds that in them do not appear the types considered Amerindian, but the other races mentioned.
Our author begins by reproducing and analyzing a Mixtec ceramic sculpture from Oaxaca, which would be postclassic, that is, much later than the date indicated. It is tall, 18 cm, and represents in an absolutely indisputable way an individual of black race. He adds that no artist could invent such features without knowing them. This is correct but, unfortunately, based on his illustration, the piece seems to us to be simply forged, so we discard it.
The other illustrations presented by the author seem to us to be authentic, although we have some doubts about illustration 1 of Plate II, where a black man is also represented and which comes from Veracruz. The following seven illustrations seem to be absolutely authentic; in three of them we find an eminent aquiline nose. In one, figure 4 of Plate II, we find the undoubted representation of a Caucasoid type of armenoid type, of which the author tells us that it is 15 cm. high and that it belongs to the collection of the University of Tulane. He adds: "man of the Near East, who could be Semitic, but who
is more reminiscent of an old Armenian". He adds that this plate shows us well the nature of the problem: at the beginning of the classical era, the Mesoamerican scene was complex, comprising Caucasians from Eurasia and black Africans, plus Amerindian types, which begin to appear around 300 BC.
His other plate, Plate III, has four illustrations. The first of them shows us the face of a young woman, beautifully treated with few Amerindian features; the last illustration of this plate represents the sculpture of a woman, from the classical period, whose Negroid features are undoubted.
Then, the author, without presenting supporting illustrations, refers to other Mexican sculptures with oriental Caucasoid features. Of one of them he says that we could interpret it as corresponding to a "merchant prince of the ancient Mediterranean", since from the beginning of the Iron Age until the Roman period, the frequent contacts with Central America were carried out by individuals of this type. On this, basically, we are in complete agreement. He adds that the merchant-princes of the Mediterranean were the aristocrats of Mesoamerican society and that their traits were represented especially by the Mayan Indians who succeeded them. Also in this he agrees with us. We would add here the testimony of a great part of the Mochica huaco-portraits.
Our author adds other reports: in the most ancient sculptures we find abundant representations of individuals with prominent noses, elongated heads and wavy hair, as opposed to the flat nose (?), round head and straight hair that the typical Mongoloids have. He cites especially an archaic group of sculptures that has been described by von Wuthenau as "a series of Semitic types", that come from Guerrero, Veracruz, Tlatilco, the Mayan region and Chiapas, all pre-classic; the beards and the prominent nose suggest Semitic subjects, more than Indians. Of the nine sculptures from Guerrero -preclassic heads, with an absence of Indian types- von Wuthenau identifies one of them as from aino, the white aborigines of Japan.
The author concludes that the Caucasians of America would have come from Eurasia, the blacks from Africa, the Mongoloids from Chinese and Japanese types from the Far East; from the shores of the Mediterranean, at different times, came Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Egyptians, Greeks, Etruscans and Romans, etc. A continuous later mixture with older local peoples, Mongoloids, would have been continuously absorbing those ethnic types, until making them disappear at the time of the conquest.
We believe that the author exaggerates somewhat in his interpretations, but that basically, what he tells us is acceptable. He does not add much to what he says in the following chapters, in which we find extremely valuable information, but which does not refer to the direct subject we are dealing with. As for the whole of his interpretation, it seems to us that a better systematization of the information is still lacking, many of which appear quite unconnected among themselves, so that what he tells us loses value, especially as regards a better systematization of the racial types he presents us, not only the Caucasoid and Negroid types, but also the various Mongoloid or "Amerindian" types that appear in our continent.
6. Caucasoid features in America, according to O. Menghin
The distinguished Austrian researcher, Prof. Osvaldo F. A. Menghin, who lived for a long time in Argentina until his death, published here a small work - the result of a series of conferences - entitled Origen y Desamollo Racial de la Especie Hemasa, from the second edition of which we now extract a series of information. Unfortunately, as far as we are concerned, it is very brief, even though it refers to an important group for us, that of the pampas.
We will begin by looking at other interesting details, included in the beginning of his chapter VI, which is entitled Racial History of the Western Hemisphere (America):
everyone'. If you have seen an Ona, do you know what an Araucanian looks like? If you have seen a Guayakí, do you know what a Guaraní looks like? All those who know these peoples will answer "no". It is not surprising that such an erroneous judgment was accepted at that time, but it is strange that today there are specialists who maintain the racial unity of the American Indian. One of the most intransigent defenders of this theory was Ales Hrdliçka, the dean of the North American anthropologists of the first decades of our century. For him and his supporters, the settlement of America took place only about 10,000 years ago by Mongolians, although belonging to various branches of the Mongolian race. According to this theory, all the inhabitants of America immigrated across the Bering Strait; [...] This theory is closely linked to another of a cultural nature, according to which America was, in pre-European times, in almost complete cultural isolation. The North Asian immigrants were essentially hunters, of late or backward Paleolithic culture, affected by certain Neolithic influences. Thus all the progress of the civilizations that developed on the soil of this continent is the result of an internal development, without connection with the cultures of the Old World. [...] Special reference was made to the absence in America of the plow, the cart, all domestic animals and cultivated plants, typical of the eastern hemisphere. [...]" (Menghin, Ob. cit., pp. 103-104).
We already know all of the above, but it is convenient to remember it, even to situate the author well in his interpretations.
A little further on, Menghin locates the problem for us:
"The tenacity with which most American anthropologists insisted on the monogenesis of American races and cultures gradually silenced the opinion of their opponents. But in the year 1934 appeared the great work 'Racial History of Mankind' by Egon von Eickstedt, who, for the first time, presents the outline of a taxonomic system of the races of the world from the biodynamic point of view. Eickstedt still speaks of 'Indians' as a cycle of races corresponding to the europids and négrids, but the context of his book suggests that he already glimpses the enormous complexity of the racial structuring of America and the very heterogeneous character of the different waves of immigration that populated the western hemisphere. He highlights the Europoid morphology of many of the continent's racial groups and rightly explains it by the fact, until then not duly appreciated, that northern Asia, the territory of origin of
a large part of the American Indians, was originally the domain of the white race and that their Mongolization took place only in the course of the Postglacial. However, Eickstedt still does not take into consideration an immigration from Southeast Asia across the Pacific. The last step was taken by Joseph Imbelloni. His decisive work on the racial taxonomy of the American aborigines appeared in the years 1937 to 1939. For Imbelloni there is no longer an 'Indian' or 'Indic race', but only a series of groupings of corporeal forms, which we can call sub-races, but by no means sub-races from a single racial stock, but from several. [...]" (Menghin, Ob. cit., pp. 108-109).
We already know that too, at least in part. However, it is important to keep it in mind, in order to situate the things we are dealing with.
We can also remember that, for Imbelloni, the Mongoloid type traits in America enter fundamentally through the Pacific, via the sea; that the fuéguidos are the oldest population of the continent and that he classifies the Guayaquíes as belonging to this race.
Then, skipping cultural information, Menghin tells us about the Upper Paleolithic type cultures discovered by him in Patagonia, which he called Toldense and Casapedrense. He says:
"... basically they have their roots in the miolitic cultures of the Old World. Its bearers are among the ancestors of the Tehuelches, a fact proven by the relations of their archaeological heritage with the culture of the Tehuelches. Racially, they correspond to this cultural complex the pámpidos, term already created by D'Orbigny; others speak of patagónidos. It is a very tall, athletic and vigorous race, of rather dark color, somewhat tanned, of paleo-europoid model yy , in fact, related to the miolithic man of western Europe. It came to America most probably sin\sin , or only with a minimum, of Mongoloid admixture, for at the time of its transfer to America there would have been no yellows in Siberia. The old theory of the brachycephaly of the Pampids is illusory and originates in an error: it was not properly considered that the skulls of the last thousand or two thousand years of the inhabitants of Patagonia are almost always artificially deformed. This factor also played an unfavorable role.
The Pampas race also forms the basic element of the Chaco Indians, who are also superior hunters. The pampas race also forms the basic element of the Chaco Indians, also of superior hunters. According to some authors, the Patagonian pampas skulls give an "Australoid" impression. As we already know, this term is open to criticism, but those who used it were probably thinking of the Murrayan race, which is characterized by its europid affinity. [...]" (Menghin, Ob. cit., pp. 118-119).
As we can see, the author clearly indicates that the pampas are of a paleouropoid model, related to the miolitic man (Upper Paleolithic) of Europe, that is, the well-known Cro-Magnon man, and at the same time he warns us that they have a minimum of mongoloid admixture. Here we can recall the Toba Indian from the restaurant in Rosario, of whom we spoke in the introduction. Unfortunately, he does not inform us about what features - however minimal they may be - of Mongoloid type the pampas have, but we can easily do so: the hairs of the pampas and of the planarids of Imbelloni, in North America, are black, thick and hard, of cylindrical section, that is, the form considered most typically Mongoloid. Moreover, most of the "reconstructions" of the Cro-Magnon Man's face that have been made, clearly show a kind of red skin.
The "Murrayan race" of Australia will be discussed at length in the next chapter. As for the author's explanation of the brachycephaly of the Patagonians, we already know that it is false.
There is another group or race of hunting peoples, of whom we have seen very little so far, although Hrdliçka points them out directly with the name of athabascas, separating them well from the columbids, with which all later authors confuse them, just as our author does, who makes a real mess of them, as we shall see:
"... There is, however, another class of hunters who populated especially the vast subarctic regions of Eurasia. They invaded northern North America at a time that we cannot determine exactly, but undoubtedly from an ancient phase of the Holocene. We call them subarctic hunters or fisher hunters, since they were concentrated preferably around the
lakes and rivers and were mainly dedicated to their economic exploitation. They are divided into two well-defined groups, racially and ethnically. The oldest corresponds, linguistically, it seems, to the primitive nucleus of the Alonquians, racially to the Lenapids of Neumann, named after an Algonkian-speaking tribe. The apalacids of Imbelloni would represent more or less the same form. It is a rather tall breed, relatively light-skinned, long-headed and long-faced and, in contrast to the pampids, with many progressive features. Its area of diffusion is the Northeastern United States and Southeastern Canada. In this area there are abundant preceramic and ancient ceramic deposits, from a time between 6000 and 1000 years B.C., which show astonishingly similarities to those of the B.C. B.C., which show striking similarities with the contemporary cultures of Finland, northern Russia and western Siberia, although we still lack sufficient archaeological knowledge of northeast Asia. Because of this and because of the large exploration gaps in Alaska and Western Canada, it is impossible to verify the course of these migrations, both racially and culturally. It is interesting that also in the Magellanic zone there are indications of immigrations of sub-Arctic elements, in a remote epoch, that would be carried out by coastal route.
"We do not know the lapse of time separating the migration of this older group of the subarctic hunters from that of the more recent one, which may have taken place in a relatively modern period. This may be inferred from the fact that in the tribes of the more recent group the relationship between race, culture and language has been very well preserved. These are the Deneid race of Neumann, the Columbids of Imbelloni, the Pacyphids of Eicksted and Canals Frau. The right of priority corresponds to the name pacífidos, introduced by Deniker. Dene is a gentile meaning the same as atabascos. This great linguistic trunk, to which belong, as the southernmost tribe, the famous Apaches, practically coincides with the Pacífid race. It is of medium size, with a broad head and face, fairly fair skin and hair less dark than that of the other Indians. Very similar types may be found in Siberia; the Sibirid race may almost be regarded as the prototype of the Pacyphid, which at the same time points out that the latter also is a transitional form between Mongoloids and Eurypids." (Menghin, Ob. cit., pp. 122-124).
It is evident the confusion that the author makes, as well as the others cited, between the Athabascan race of Hrdliçka and the Pacyphid or Columban, which does not correspond (apart from various mixtures) to the Algonquian tribes. As for the Apalacids of Imbelloni,
COMPARISON MADE BY ALFONSO CASO, TO PROVE CONVERGENCES. According to Caso, Relations Between the Old and New Worlds (fig. 8). First: Merovingian figure from Regensburg, Bavaria. Second: figure from the Balsas River, Mexico. The relationship between these figures is undoubted, but in principle no relationship would be possible between the German figure and the Mexican one, so convergence, that is, non-relation, would be proven. But Caso forgot to say that the Merovingian figure copies forms that in origin are previous to the Era, from Etruria, Greece, etc.; then the relationship is possible. Besides, are the big beards that the figure of the RIo Balsas presents Mongolian? We believe that something more European cannot be asked. It even seems to us that it is an imported piece.
is a later subdivision made by Imbelloni, which we have not thought it necessary to deal with and which partially corresponds to the Sudéstidae of Canals Frau, which, by the way, has little to do with the group we are analyzing. The group we are dealing with is short-headed and short-faced, as are the true Thabascas, who inhabit mainly the interior of Canada, while constituting the principal part of the ruling class of the Prairie tribes, especially of the Sioux or Dacota.
Two other important facts, cited by our author, are that the cultural influences of that race reached the Magellanic area - something that undoubtedly had to be done through the contribution of
THE BEARD IN AMERICA AND THE PROOF OF "CONVERGENT" INVENTION, according to Alfonso Caso, in Relations Between the Old and New Worlds (fig. 7). The first figure corresponds to the back of a mirror from Veracruz, Mexico. The second, to an Etruscan sarcophagus. The third, to a relief from pre-dynastic Egypt. The similarity of the figures is undoubted, but with it there is no proof of convergent invention: from the predynastic to the Etruscan figure there is a continuation of similar artistic figures - evidently, more developed in Etruria - whose tradition has been transferred to America, already fully formed. The figure of the Mexican mirror is certainly not Mongoloid; its oblique eyes are typical of the eastern Mediterranean.
of some racial group, which we will see later, although the author does not cite it, and the fact that shows that this race, at its base the sybirid, is a transitional form between mongolids and europids.
For our part - and to begin with - we will point out three important cultural facts that this race has had to bring to South America: first, the national game of the Araucanians, called the chueca, widely spread also in the Chaco, and missing in the intermediate regions south of the Navajo and Apache athabascos; second, the protorraquetas for walking in the snow, a kind of small platforms that widen the surface of the feet, covered by the moccasin (possibly the moccasins are also added here), known by the Patagonians and Araucanians; third, the form of counting that we call decimal of pairs, with the hundred made by ten-by-ten, used by the Thabascas, Shoshones and Patagonians.
The culture of these peoples is an Upper Paleolithic developed at the Mesolithic level, with some Neolithic influences.
Finally, Menghin accepts, with Imbelloni, that all Mongoloid racial influences in America come from the immigrations produced across the Pacific Ocean, which would have begun about 2,500 years before Christ; but, with von Eickstedt, he points out that among the Amazonids there are "many europoid characters" (p. 126), and that the Isthmian race has a "somewhat different, more Europoid character" (p. 127), pointing out influences that Imbelloni forgot about.
Chapter III
Birdsell and the origin of the Australoid Americans
1. Birdsell and the origin of Australians
The American researcher Joseph B. Birdsell, of the University of California, has published a very important work on the races of Oceania, Asia and the problem of the early settlement of America, entitled The Problem of the Early Peopling of the Americas as Viewed from Asia, 1951. This work or monograph is quite long, so we can only reproduce its essential parts.
Unfortunately, the author does not deal with all American Indians but almost limits himself to some groups of the Californian region of the United States, which present very primitive characteristics, of the Australoid type. The existence of clearly similar groups in South America is unknown to him (they are Australoids with abundant beards); the other Indians are all considered as Mongoloids, without bothering to prove it. That is to say, on the whole, he admits the existence of small residual remains of a very primitive bearded race in California (which may have arrived already mixed, according to him) and that all the other Indians are of more recent Mongoloid origin. In truth, it is not this part of his work that is most important, but the study he makes of the primitive population of Oceania and continental Asia, discriminating the races existing there, then and now, and then comparing them with America. That part of his work is the one that is of greatest interest to us, because from the first moment he clarifies several previously unsolvable problems. We add that
the author has done a lot of field work on the physical anthropology of Australians.
Our author begins by denying the racial unity of the Australians, something with which we have to agree in principle, since some time ago -and in front of series of photographs of these natives- we had reached the same conclusion; instead of a single Australian race he speaks of an "unequal mixture of three major racial elements", all of which would have come from Asia, at the end of the Pleistocene. The route of entry to Australia would have been terrestrial, strange as that may seem, at first. In fact, during the last glacial, the sea level dropped extraordinarily (it is supposed to be about one hundred meters) and the Asian continental lands were united in a single mass (called Sahul Shelf), or little less, with Australia, as well as with all of Indonesia. Therefore, the way offered the least difficulty, even if there had been some sea spaces between the islands, as some claim.
We will begin a series of long quotations, because of the fundamental importance we attach to this author, to try to understand and explain the earliest settlement of America.
"II. Australasian racial data
"The origin of American Indians inevitably leads to Asia. The characteristics of the present Asian population offer suggestive data for the attempted solution to interpretations of these racial data, which have been obscured by a number of complicating factors. Of these, two appear to be of great importance. First, the available evidence suggests that the Mongoloid race has reached its present geographic limits by a very rapid, possibly explosive expansion. Anthropologists seem to be in general agreement on this point. Second, the advent of the essential elements of Neolithic culture seriously disrupted the pattern of hunter-gatherer populations. Farmers can potentially reach a higher population density than peoples limited to a hunter-gatherer economy. This factor has important implications in terms of population genetics. It seems likely that the emergence of agriculture and the
BIRDSELL RECONSTRUCTIVE MAP OF THE PLENSTOCENE TERTIARY POPULATIONS IN ASA. From The Problem of the Early Peopling of the Americas as Viewed from Asia fig. 1. The explanation is given in it, and in the text. It would correspond to the last advance of the last glacial period. The archaic Caucasoids, Amurians, would extend originally to China and Japan, and from them the first Mongoloids would derive, due to their isolation in the glacial period in the extreme North. From the same Amurians would derive the Murrayans of Australia The negritos would be the first population of Indochina, and from there they would have spread to Oceania and Australia in early times The carpenters would be a fourth primary race (there are almost always four great races), and would also have arrived in Australia in later times, they could not have arrived in America due to the extreme south of the territory they occupy, but it happens that there are many living types and ancient skulls of this racial type in America. It is worth noting the reduced extension that the author gives to the Asian glaciers, contrary to what von Eckstedt, Valiois, etc. suppose.
expansion of the Mongoloids are not separate factors but rather appeared together in Asia. In any case, the living peoples of continental Asia today do not provide the complete evidence necessary to resolve the racial origins of the American aborigine.
"It is generally accepted concept that marginal areas provide effective refugia that can preserve elements of more primitive populations. In terms of East Asia, there are two major regions. One of these consists of the Americas; the other is Australasia. Apparently paradoxical, at first glance, but I believe that a cautious interpretation of the peopling of Australia and Melanesia can shed important light on the nature of the racial elements consigned to Asia for migration to the New World in the terminal Pleistocene and the beginning of recent times.
"The Aborigines of Australia have thus posed a problem in terms of their ultimate racial origins. Those anthropologists who have done recent work on Australian materials, such as Howells, Klaatsch, Jones and Campbell, Gray and Hackett, have vigorously supported the idea that the Australian Aborigines represent a primitive but essentially homogeneous racial entity. Others, and Hooton is chief among these, have insisted that Australians are a composite population to which varied racial elements have contributed. Field work carried out by the author during 1938 and 1939 gives validity to the latter view. These Aborigines are in reality an uneven mixture of three major racial elements, all of which appear to have migrated from the Asiatic mainland in the terminal Middle Pleistocene.
"Geographical relationships are of importance in interpreting the origin of the populations of Australia and New Guinea. During the last eustatic glacial sea-level shift, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and the adjacent smaller islands, merged into a single emergent land mass, representing a peninsular extension of the Asian continent [...]. Thus the fourth glacial period was in an unusual way favorable to human migration in Australasia....
"Three major racial elements have been identified in the Australian Aboriginal population. They are: the Oceanic Negroid, the Murrayan (a primitive representative of the Caucasoid racial group) and the Carpentary. The Oceanic Negrito seems, according to distribution data, to have been the first migratory stream of Homo sapiens to reach the Sahul Shelf, at a date attributed early in the fourth glacial period. There is no archaeological evidence for the time of their passage. Today they are best represented by the Andamanese, but in a more hybrid form are clearly present among the Semangs of the Malay Peninsula, the Aetas of Luzon and in marginal areas of Australia, including Tasmania. They form the matrix of the racially
merclades inhabiting New Guinea and the rest of Melanesia. In their unmixed form they are characterized by a minimal stature and a generally childlike type of features. Their skin color is dark, but not extremely so. Their hair form is an extreme negroid variety, which whitens late in life and baldness is rare. Body and facial hair is reduced. If there is one safe inference in the field of racial anthropology it is that the oceanic Negritos should be considered as very closely related, genetically, to the Negritos of the Congo Basin in tropical Africa.
"The second stream of peoples coming into Australia has been called the Murrayans. They appear in their less mixed form at the mouth of the Murray River and the near coastal regions. The date of their migration is tentatively placed in the middle of the last glacial period. Osteological evidence of their passage, or the survival of descendant groups has been discovered at Keilor, Victoria, at Aitape on the north coast of New Guinea, in the two Wadjak skulls of Java, and in the small series of skulls from the Upper Chu-ku-tien Cave in North China. This element is characterized by a moderately short, but comparatively stocky physical build, a type with coarse Caucasoid features. The color of the skin when not exposed to the sun is moderately light. The shape of the hair ranges from straight to wavy, graying appears at an early age and baldness is very common.
"The hair on the body and face is extraordinarily abundant. The skull is absolute and relatively long and low. The superciliary arches are large. The nose is broad but shows high relief. The nasal depression is deep, but this feature has been exaggerated in the literature. The teeth are very large, but prognathism is not very noticeable in the living. The overall impression of the face is one of masslessness. This population shows its closest affiliations with the Ainos and the two groups together may be regarded as the Asiatic representatives of the Caucasoid race.
"The third and final group entering Australia has been called the Carpentaries, because of their present distribution around the Gulf of Carpentaria, on the northern shores of the continent. Their geographical point indicates that they entered Australia through the Sahul Shelf prior to its sinking and by inference, in the latter part of the Glacial Age. No archaeological evidence marking their outward migration from Southeast Asia has yet been discovered. They are characterized by a very tall and extremely slender body shape. The skin color is very dark. The
Hair shape varies from straight to wavy. The hair grays very early and baldness is very rare. Their cranial vault is characterized by small absolute dimensions and is relatively narrow and high. The width of the face significantly exceeds that of the skull. The superciliary arches are pronounced and the nasal depression is deep. The nose is broad and moderately low in relief. The general type of the Carpentary features can be described as extremely primitive. These peoples show racial affiliations with the so-called Veddoid elements, present in the aboriginal and low caste populations of Central and South India. Taken together, these groups validly represent a fourth major racial category, taxonomically equivalent with the Caucasoid, Negroid and Mongoloid groups." (Birdsell, pp. 2-4).
Given this description of the original elements that would constitute the Australians as a whole, we believe that many of the ideas about the original origin of American man are greatly transformed, since the comparison cannot be made with the "Australians" as a whole.
But, before going on, there is something extremely serious. The author considers that agriculture and the expansion of the Mongoloids appeared together in Asia. We will see other data on the problem later, but a serious problem arises: if the Mongoloids appear together with agriculture (it is not explained well how, as we will see later), they would have had to arrive in America already equipped with this agriculture, something that would be directly denied by the reports that we can collect in our continent.
Moreover, it is not clear now with which type of Australians the aforementioned comparisons have been made. The oceanic Negrito, by the way, according to the author's interpretations, seems to be excluded from the beginning (we will see that not so much; his oceanic Negrito does not coincide with ours), but the traits that are assigned to the australoids in America usually belong both to the murrayans and to the carpenters, preferably to the former. Let us recall that, for Canals Frau, for example, the fundamental cranial features of the American australoids would be the long and high skull, which corresponds to the carpenters; on the other hand, he himself considers
that the skulls of medium length and low skulls would be more likely to be of primitive Mongoloids, their second migration stream, which here seems directly related to the Murrayans, because they are low.
The Laguids of our various authors, who compare them especially with the Melanesians, because of their long and high skull, and especially because of the very distinctive feature that the face (the cheek bones) is wider than the skull, are evidently related to the carpenters.
Before following the comments, it is better to see the continuation of what Birdsell tells us:
"The populations of Aboriginal Australia and New Guinea differ in many ways, and the latter have been labeled Papuan and Melanesian in the literature. Some authors have argued that the Melanesians have made a genetic contribution to the more primitive populations of the New World....
"The population of Australia represents a mixture of Negritos, Murrayans and Carpatharians as racial elements. Here the contribution of the Negritos is relatively unimportant as far as the living peoples are concerned, and can be found only in the marginal areas. In a general sense, the inhabitants of the southern portion of the continent show a Murrayan predominance; in the northern half of the continent, the Carpentary elements are clearly a majority. Geographical factors suggest that all three elements should be present in New Guinea. The impression one gains from the literature, however, is chaotic. The hypothesis of the tri-hybrid origin of the Australians as applied to New Guinea brings some semblance of order to this confused picture. Clearly the basic racial element throughout New Guinea and Melanesia is the Oceanic Negrito. Its important contribution is perfectly reflected in the shape of the hair and to a lesser degree in the facial morphology and stature....
"... Asian evidence suggests that the Murrayans developed, and became better adapted to life in open regions. Thus it is not difficult to explain the differential preservation of the ancient Negroid population in the jungles of New Guinea. In such areas they were subject to less population pressure from the incoming groups. The same general conditions apply to the third emigration, of the Carpatharians... This difference is reflected in the present populations. In the high plains of the
In the interior of New Guinea, the people seem to show a majority of Negritoid characteristics and a minority of Murrayan ones. Such populations can be considered as di-hybrids. In the coastal areas of this island, both north and south, this basic di-hybrid combination has been further vitiated by the introduction of Carpathian elements. These populations are, therefore, tri-hybrid in their racial origins.
"Long after the sinking of the Sahul Shelf the vanguard of a fourth major racial group, the Mongoloids, arrived from Indonesia. The genetic traits of their presence are evident in general where Melanesian languages are spoken. Melanesian populations are four-hybrid in nature. The Mongoloid ingredient appears to have been added as late as four or five thousand years ago. It is probably contemporary with the introduction of Neolithic cultural elements.
"The racial composition hypothesis for New Guinea has considerable bearing on the origins of American Indians. In the first place, outside of the oceanic Negritos, there is no evidence for the presence of other negroid types in Australasia. Several authors have described individuals believed to represent a complete negroid element. I believe that any so-called negroid, as opposed to the negritoid type, in New Guinea and Melanesia, results from the hybridization of negritoid and carpentary elements present in most of the archipelago. Since there is no data to indicate that complete negroids ever inhabited India, their easternmost area in Asia is Arabia. Their presence there is a relatively recent consequence of the institution of slavery. Hence nowhere, either in Asia or Australia, were there any such high Negroids as might have contributed to the American aborigines." (Birdsell, Ob. cit., pp. 4-5).
The important result of this, for America, is that what is being called the "Melanesian" element in Melanesia and which is supposed to have migrated to America, is a mixture of the Oceanic Negrito and the Carpentary, since it is characterized by having a long and high skull. It is with this mixed element that it is compared to the American Lagid. Now it so happens that Birdsell, whose knowledge of the indigenous American races seems to be less than his knowledge of Oceania and Asia, tells us almost nothing of the Languids and comparisons of them with the Melanesians and Australians. His comparisons of the human types discussed are limited to.
We can find a few traces of Murrayan elements in Southern California, as we will see, of which we even doubt if they have arrived in pure form to our continent or if they were already mixed.
The date that the author estimates for the first introduction of the Mongoloids in Melanesia, which is only two or three thousand years B.C., is important to us. If that date is local, it could even be considered as somewhat high, but if it also refers to their first appearance in Indonesia, that could have important repercussions in the American sphere.
Naturally, it may be objected that what has been said - the discrimination of the Australians into three different racial forms and others - are personal interpretations of Birdsell; it is possible to oppose him to what many previous authors have said about the unity of this population, but the fact is that he is still one of the most recent authors to have studied these populations and that, consequently, he must be taken into account, even to deny it with facts, that is, with measures that contradict what he tells us. Also, seeing an abundant series of photographs of the natives of those regions, it is easy to distinguish their types (and perhaps some others that he did not differentiate), so that the idea that the Australians form a homogeneous group, the Melanesians another, etc., can no longer be sustained.
2. Birdsell and the primitive populations of Asia
If what we have just seen about the first origin of the population of Australia, New Guinea and Melanesia changes many ideas about the ancient populations of Asia, it has no less impact. In this regard, we have reproduced in detail Birdsell's map, so that his views can be understood without difficulty.
In this interpretation it is accepted that Homo sapiens sapiens did not develop in Northwest Asia, but entered there at a time not earlier than the third interglacial, nor later than the beginning of the fourth glacial. It is a lot about the "third interglacial".
cial". All the interpretations that we know about the origin of Homo sapiens sapiens place it in an antiquity that does not exceed 40,000 years, that is, in the last interstadial of the last glacial, a figure that would be exceeded by more than double if we place it in the third or last interglacial.
We continue. The oceanic Negritos, at an unknown time, would spread to South Asia and from there to Oceania, without expanding to the North of the Himalayas or to the North of South China. The Carpathians first occupied India and also did not go north of the Himalayas, but left abundant traces of admixture in Indonesia, before moving on to Australia.
We would like to have an interpretation and a map even earlier than the one presented by the author - however hypothetical it may be - but of course, that is too much to ask. However, it seems that the author gives Africa as the place of origin of the full Homo sapiens sapiens, from where he successively migrated to the Asian lands, at least to Asia Anterior. The first of these emigrants were the negritos, then the murrayanos and, finally, the carpenters; the mongoloids would be a later specialization of the murrayanos yy , apparently, the recent caucasoids another one, which would remain more faithful to the original type.
It is important to note that the author, as we will soon see in the quote, locates a paleoanthropic population, that is, neanderthaloid, in Siberia -before the Murrayan-Caucasoids arrived there- which he supposes may have left traits, in mixture, in the later populations. We already know that these two human forms would be one and the same thing for us, at least in a different degree of development.
We will make another series of quotations, which this time correspond to Part III, pages 6-16 of the aforementioned work.
"III. The populations of Asia during the terminal Pleistocene.
of the human populations of Asia during the terminal phases of the Pleistocene must belong to the realm of the hypothesis... The following reconstruction of the populations of continental Asia of the fourth glacial period is based on the distribution and sequence of major racial elements recently determined for Australia. The following basic theories have been used and should be made explicit:
"1. Homo sapiens presumably did not develop in Northwest Asia but entered there at a date probably not earlier than the third interglacial, nor later than the beginning of the fourth glacial period. Paleoanthropic hominids characteristic of this region, earlier, did not develop directly into living populations but may have contributed to them by hybridization.
"2. It is presumed, in accordance with Coon's hypothesis, that one of the main factors in the differentiation of modern racial groups has been natural selection operating in terms of the constraints and stimuli inherent in the external environment. As a corollary, the major racial groups of the Old World differentiated or developed somewhere within the nuclear regions they populated at the beginning of the Recent geological period.
"Using another facet of Coon's hypothesis, it is presumed that the Mongoloid race was the last of the major groups to differentiate. Its final phase of evolution occurred late in the fourth glacial period, as a result of extreme environmental duress in a dry arctic environment.
"4. In the author's opinion, the methodological attempts used today in vogue for racial analysis are neither based on a valid theory nor yield reliable results in practice. It must be presumed, however, that they are sufficient to permit an approximate identification of human populations in terms of major racial groups.
"The first task is to attempt to reconstruct the distribution of human populations in Asia in the fourth glacial period, in pre-Mongoloid times. The Australian evidence shows that the first migratory type of modern man to head eastward was the oceanic Negrito... Attenuated traces of their earlier presence are found throughout Southeast Asia and extend into India, at the foot of the Himalayan Mountains and among the hill tribes of the coastal region of Malabar. When and how they migrated from the Congo Basin to the tropical forests of South and Southeast Asia cannot be determined.
now, [...] This sub-race of modern man can be excluded from having contributed to the pioneers who entered the Americas.
"In terms of spatial relationships it is convenient to leave aside the Murrayans at this point and examine next the last major migratory group of the Pleistocene, the Carpathentians. These tall, thin, dark-skinned people are linked to an obvious racial substratum in the aboriginal populations of India. In terms of Coon's hypothesis, they represent a racial group that differentiated in a hot, dry environment. Carpentary and Negritoid populations occupied India and Southeast Asia contemporaneously. Some isolating mechanism existed that prevented these two vastly different types of human beings from forming a single hybrid group... Coon's hypothesis suggests that ecological isolating mechanisms were most important in keeping the still-developing Carpathentians separate from the Negritos of India. The Negrito populations were adapted to a life in rainforests and were able to maintain their genetic integrity. The Carpatharians probably survived their final differentiation in the remaining warm climatic zones of peninsular India, and exerted relative population pressure at this time on the Negritos. There is no geological evidence for the chronology of the arrival of Homo sapiens in India. Certainly a very long period of time was required for the selective forces inherent in this environment to transform an unspecialized Caucasoid into the Carpentary type. The interval between the onset of the third glacial period probably represents a necessary minimum of time.
"The Carpatharians dispersed less profusely in the Old World than other major racial groups...There is no evidence of their penetration north of the Indu-Kush or the Himalayan chain. Eastward there is reason to believe that a Carpentary substratum is an important underlying element throughout Southeast Asia, now populated by the so-called generalized Mongoloids. Unpublished evidence on Australians indicates that in populations of known hybrid origins, the Mongoloid phenotype acts to mask the presence of carpentary genes. In hybrids in which the genetic contribution of each of
B
These racial types are the same, the surface appearance is characteristic of Southeast Asian Mongoloids. Plate 1 illustrates three F-1 Chinese-Carpenterian individuals. As racial examples they could have been selected from any Indonesian or South Asian groups. These data imply that such populations may contain an appreciable genetic contribution derived from the carpentary philum. This element is apparently present in mountain peoples such as the Nagas and Lolos... The Carpathentary, like the Negritos, do not appear to have gone further north in China than the northern limits of the Hungshui drainage system. [...]".
Comments in passing. As we can see, the author makes the Negritos originate in the Congo basin and, from there, migrate to South Asia; this, in order to deny their possible participation in the aboriginal population in America. Then, following Coon (and other authors who assume the same), he attributes the formation of the races to the "geographical isolation" maintained for a long time and to the consequent influences of this environment, a hypothesis that seems to us inadmissible, as we shall see.
Important is the sentence in which he explains that some kind of geographical environment transformed "a non-specialized Caucasoid into the Carpentary type". The truth is that we had previously understood that the Carpatharians were "a major group" at the level of the Caucasoids, Mongoloids and Negroids, but here we have something else, which makes this group a Caucasoid derivation. Even more important is what he tells us later about the fact that, in the first generation, the Mongoloid genes mask the carpenters, something we had warned about some time ago, but not about these racial types but about human biotypological beings.
which present comparable characteristics and which are present in all the so-called "races". We will see more about that.
We continue:
"Thus far, our analysis of the earliest populations of continental Asia indicates that the peopling of the Americas comprised neither the Negrito nor the Carpentary racial group. It is time to fix the Murrayans on the scene. They, and the closely related Ainos, are members of the Caucasoid race. This eastern branch could collectively be called 'Amurian' (Note: Name derived from the Amur River in Siberia). The scant archaeological evidence reveals that as late as the Neolithic and even in early historical times, Whites were more widely spread in Central and Northern Asia than they are now. Anthropologists agree that the Mongoloid race has spread widely in recent millennia at the expense of these Asian Caucasoids. During the terminal Pleistocene, the white populations that were apparently around the Mediterranean regions in Europe, Northern AFRICA and the Near East, spread across the ice-free regions of Russia, Siberia and China, until they reached the peaceful margins of the continent, from the Sea of Okhotsk northward to a point off the island of Taiwan in the south. Thus the northern basin of the Hungshui River can be taken as an approximate boundary between the Amurians of the moderate zone and the Carpathians and Negritos of the tropical zone....
The regions inhabited by the Caucasoids in Northern AFRICA, Europe and Asia probably represented a geographic continuum during the last ice age...."
The Amurians, like the Mediterranean sub-race, belong to the Caucasoid race, but differ appreciably from the better known latter groups. The latter groups are today primarily centered around the Mediterranean and extend eastward through Asia Minor into North India, Afghanistan and Turkestan. They do not seem to have penetrated effectively beyond a line drawn generally from the Tienshan along the Oxus River to the Aral Sea and thence in a northwesterly direction to the Gulf of Finland. No factor seems to have been effective in suggesting the extension in the fourth glacial or in early recent times, of Mediterranean racial types beyond such a line....
"Thus entered into our discussion, we have studiously ignored the problem of the origin of the Mongoloid. The literature
offers a wide variety of explanations, these hypotheses seem to have in common: 1) a general sense that the Mongoloid race is relatively recent in origin, and 2) that their present distribution suggests that they originated somewhere in East Asia. Carleton Coon, however, has provided not only a reasonable theory of Mongoloid origins, but is making an important contribution to the understanding of the principles of race formation.
"Coon's attempt is primarily based upon the postulate that natural selection has been and continues to be a major evolutionary force in the evolution of human races. It suggests, and I am convinced of its essential correctness, that the Mongoloid race developed in response to the extreme duress of a dry arctic environment. Environmentally that is, the high selection pressure of such an environment acting on the Amurian form of Homo sapiens, which was poorly adapted to it, produced the racial group now known as Mongoloid. This race possesses many specialized traits, centralized in the facial region. Coon's hypothesis ensures in an intellectually satisfactory way the development of such Mongoloid traits as: lateral physical formation (?), small stature, reduction of facial and body hair, together with the development of the characteristic straight hair, decreased nasal width, the diminution of the nasal profile, the anterior and lateral prominence of the cheekbones, a general reduction in the size of the superciliary bridge, the epicanthal fold of the eye in conjunction with the fatty deposits above and below the eye and the narrowing of the palpebral aperture. All of these traits are of genetic origin and represent modifications well adapted to provide survival advantages in a cold, dry environment... Coon places the time of Mongoloid differentiation in the late fourth glacial period. He suggests that a moderate-sized population was trapped by glacial advances in northeastern Siberia. During a short period, possibly a minor advance of glaciation in some final subphase of the glacial period, these peoples endured such rigorous environmental selection as to emerge as broadly developed Mongoloids... Coon suggests that the critical differentiation of the Mongoloids may have taken place in a period as short as five or possibly ten thousand years... [...].
"With the retreat of the mountain glaciation, in the first recent time, the reduced surviving population, now Mongoloid in racial type, expanded. Much of this diffusion took place southward and westward within the limits of the mainland.
Moreover, some of these peoples may have crossed the Bering Strait. Thus a second racial ingredient for the peopling of the New World was made available. In general terms, the Amurian branch of the Caucasoid race and the recently developed Mongoloid race present the only discernible elements that are attainable at the appropriate place and time as important contributors to the aboriginal populations of the New World."
We confess that we do not like Coon's hypothesis about the origin of the Mongoloids, thanks to geographical isolation and the aggression of the arctic climate, and therefore we will put a stone in his path. It will be recalled that, according to the first part of the transcript of Birdsell's paper, the newly created or born Mongoloids are supposed to have spread with Neolithic culture and agriculture. Now we ask: How did those Mongoloids create agriculture, with which they were able to multiply and spread so widely, in that terrible dry arctic environment that formed them?
It seems to us to be an appropriate question for an indiscreet child.
Part IV follows, entitled: A brief analysis of the data available from East Asia, pp. 17-20. Here, Birdsell comments at the beginning that Hooton's work on the Pecos Indians is based on the acceptance of Weidenreich's interpretation of the three skulls found in the Upper Chu-kutien Cave, of which Weidenreich considered number 101 as a primitive Mongoloid, and is a kind of Aino (Amurian, for Birdsell, that is, Caucasoid), with a low skull; the second, number 102, as a melanesoid, and the third, number 103, as a skimoid. Weidenreich supposed that these three types of populations were involved in the first settlement of America.
Birdsell tells us that Weidenreich rejected the relation of skull 101, an old man, to the Australians, but that this comparison and rejection was made with the Carpatharian type; instead, the comparison with the Murrayans would be perfect; that the comparison of skull 102, female, to the Melanesians was made on the basis of cranial height, so he rejects the comparison and says that "there is no reason why he should not
can be accepted as a hybrid produced by the mixture of a high vault dolichocephalic Mongoloid type, on the one hand, and the Amurian population of East Asia, characteristically of low and long vault". As for skull 103, also female, considered skimoid, he declares it directly Mongoloid with long and high skull, with some "ainoid" features. With that, he concludes that there, in the Upper Cave, there are only the following two types: 1) an archaic caucasoid, presumable ancestor of ainos and murrayans, and 2) a primitive mongoloid form, with long and high head (which avoids telling us how it was formed), which would have been submerged in Asia by the most recent brachycephalic mongoloids, but which is found in some marginal populations of America. With this, his di-hybrid thesis for the origin of the American population is cleared of drawbacks, in Asia.
At the end of this title it tells us:
"Regarding the peopling of the New World, the situation in Northeast Asia can be summarized as follows. The population of the early fourth ice age, reconstructed on evidence based on the distribution of marginal peoples in Australasia, indicated that neither the Negritos nor the Carpathentals can have contributed genetically to the American Indians. Likewise, any so-called 'Melanesian' contribution has to be eliminated from consideration... One can speculate that if human populations arrived in the New World in the third interglacial, they would be expected to be purely Caucasoid, i.e., Amurian, and not to show any Mongoloid characteristics. On the other hand, any migratory group crossing the Bering Strait since the end of the Pleistocene would show some Mongoloid morphology by way of hybridization. Because of the recent expansion of the Mongoloid people the first immigrants would show relatively little Mongoloid, but this racial element would be expected to increase with the passage of time...".
3. Birdsell and polyracial and biological theories, critiques.
Our author then dedicates Part V of his monograph to the
subject: Polyracial theories of the origin of the Indians, pages 21-23. We transcribe the main part:
"...Since Hrdliçka slowly inhumed the European group of the polyracialists, an American anthropological school has arisen which has proposed the thesis of a multiple racial origin for the American Indian. Today this hypothesis is so firmly defended that it is incorporated into the literature. The monoracialists have been conspicuous by their silence. The postulated non-Mongoloid racial elements in the American Indian are summarized in Table I, from the works of seven relatively recent authors. The first five have published comprehensive schemes covering the origins of the New World. It is of more than passing interest that the first four purport the presence of an Australoid element in these Indians. The fifth, Hooton, concluded that this primitive element might be better described as 'ainoid'. Three authors find evidence of a Mediterranean genetic contribution representing the Caucasoid race. Under the negroid race four authors identify complete negroid elements, three suggest in rather vague terms that the negritoid element might be present and two see evidence of melanesoid contributions. Gladwin claims the presence of all three elements. Count and Weidenreich add to this general polyracial view, but fall into a separate category since neither attempted to describe all the elements that can be found in the American Indian. Count's work with some California skulls led him to the conclusion that indeed both Australoid and Melanesoid elements were present. Weidenreich indicated his belief that a melanesoid type migrated across the Bering Strait."
Table I
Larger breed
Australoid
Caucasoid
Negroid
Sub-race
Australoid
Ainoid
Mediterranean
Negroid
Negritoid
Melanesoid
Author:
Taylor
x
-
X
X
-
-
Dixon
X
-
X
X
-
-
Gladwin
X
-
-
X
(X)?
x
Imbelloni
X
-
-
X
X
X
Hooton
-
X
X
X
0
X
Count
X
-
-
-
-
X
Weidenreich -
Weidenreich
-| Weidenreich |
| :--- |
| - |
-
-
-
-
X
Raza mayor Australoide Caucasoide Negroide
Sub-raza Australoide Ainoide Mediterránea Negroide Negritoide Melanesoide
Autor:
Taylor x - X X - -
Dixon X - X X - -
Gladwin X - - X (X)? x
Imbelloni X - - X X X
Hooton - X X X 0 X
Count X - - - - X
"Weidenreich
-" - - - - X| Raza mayor | Australoide | Caucasoide | | Negroide | | |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Sub-raza | Australoide | Ainoide | Mediterránea | Negroide | Negritoide | Melanesoide |
| Autor: | | | | | | |
| Taylor | x | - | X | X | - | - |
| Dixon | X | - | X | X | - | - |
| Gladwin | X | - | - | X | (X)? | x |
| Imbelloni | X | - | - | X | X | X |
| Hooton | - | X | X | X | 0 | X |
| Count | X | - | - | - | - | X |
| Weidenreich <br> - | | - | - | - | - | X |
This table is not complete, but it is sufficient for its purpose. It is important to point out that all its authors (Gladwin, somewhat less) use cranial study methods for the establishment of the races that they postulate are present in indigenous America, something that Birdsell deeply criticizes, as we will see. We also notice some "flaws" in the Table, for example, Gladwin spoke of elements of Greek origin that would form the Mochicas, and as for Imbelloni, the fact that he points out Negroid and Negritoid elements in America is completely new to us, in spite of the fact that we know perfectly well practically all his works.
Birdsell then enters into his Part VI: An Evaluation of the Biological Theories Used by the Polyracialists, pages 2336. There he devotes himself to a critique of the authors cited in the Table and their working methods, cranial measurements and interpretations. We are interested in what he says about Imbelloni:
"Gladwin and Imbelloni presented systems of eight major migrations, differing in detail, but containing many conceptual parallels... They explained the emergence of high culture in Mesoamerica as a consequence of relatively late transpacific migrations. Imbelloni's reconstruction of American origins was much less whimsical than Gladwin's, but the end result was very similar... The contributions of both authors must be regarded as sin\sin controlling, uncritical speculations derived from a primary conceptualization in the field of culture rather than in that of biology...."
We do not agree very much, but from the author's point of view, it is understandable what he is telling us. We continue:
"Professor Ernest A. Hooton has established himself as the most influential figure in modern physical anthropology. His development of the typological attempt at racial analysis has become the main bulwark upon which the polyracialist theory of the origin of American man rests today. The exposition of this methodology is contained in his classic book The Indians of the Pecos Pueblo, 1930. This study has been done with great authority, meticulous care, and complicated statistics. With his method of using anatomical judgment to select a total series into sub-series of types.
Hooton concluded that non-Mongoloid substrates derived from Ainoid, Negroid or Negroid and Mediterranean elements existed in the American Indian. His analysis of the subseries comprised a threefold plan of assessment: 1) statistical assessment of the differential traits of both metric and index subseries, 2) a demonstration that the morphological traits of the subseries types cannot have been randomly selected from the total population, and 3) composite photographs revealing that Hooton's types cluster around norms markedly different from those of the total series. It will be conceded that in terms of Pearsonian statistics, the sub-series types chosen by Hooton from the Pecos population have statistical validity.
"Accepting the statistical and visual significance of the types Hooton brought out of Pecos, there remains a very difficult interpretative aspect of the problem. What is their biological significance. While Hooton does not critically delineate the basic biological assumptions underlying his typological attempt, if I understand his position, they can be summarized in the following terms:
"(1) The typological attempt at racial analysis is biologically justified because the older elements represented in a mixed population, because of their recessive character occasionally mendelize into individuals in something approximating the phenotypic appearance of the racial elements originally supporting them." (Hooton, p. 336, 1930). The individual is the proper unit of such analysis.
"(2) Race relations between geographically separated groups must be judged in terms of a long series of important indices. Absolute metric similarities are not prerequisites for genetic affinity. When the differences between the means of these indices are less than would be expected from random examples of the same population, the separate peoples are racially related." (Hooton, p. 247, 1930).
"There can be no quarrel with the typological attempt at racial analyses if these assumptions are biologically valid. If one or the other test is uncertain in part or in whole, then the method of typology is reduced to the status of a subjective operating procedure rather than a scientific method of racial analysis.....
"...The typological intent of a racial analysis was tacitly based on the combination of phenotypic traits occurring in the individual. Modern genetic knowledge requires that the population replaces the individual.
as the unit of study and that the frequency of variable genes be replaced by a constellation of phenotypic traits as the variables of the analysis. These variations are qualitative in nature. They mark the change from a super-elaborate descriptive face to a necessarily primitive aspect because of their youth from the analytical phase."
We suspend the quotation, to make the necessary comments. We agree very much with the question of biological _("¿Cuál es la importancia "){ }_{\text {¿Cuál es la importancia }} ? of the typological procedure used, basically of cranial measurements, although Hooton completed it with photographs, etc. Instead, we do argue that the individual is the proper unit of analysis. For example, the race of horses, dogs, potatoes or apples is not determined by populations but by the individuals themselves. In other words: a racehorse is a racehorse, no matter what color it has, and even if it has some mixed traits, it is still basically a racehorse, no matter where it lives.
There are no horses that are completely mixed, intermediate between race horses and draft horses, their bones are different, the same happens with the existing difference between hard and soft wheat (that is, this difference exists in all biological species), they are much finer in texture (hard) and not spongy (soft), as it is present in the bone structure of draft horses. We repeat that there are no intermediate forms between these two basic biological facts, and that in all biological species.
This means directly that the individual and not the population is the unit of study. Even more directly: in so-called population genetics, all units of heredity in man are considered to be of equal and democratic value; however, we maintain that there are basic units of heredity, more important than the others, and at the same time internal, while the external ones, especially color, are secondary.
We believe that what we have just expressed is something completely new in genetics, since we do not even know of any precursors. There may be, but we repeat that we do not know them. However, this is not the time to dwell on it. This is the result of our particular studies on the subject.
But, to present it in proper form, another work like this one is needed.
Here we will make an aside, quoting another author, to better see Hooton's interpretative ideas regarding the settlement of America:
"... Hooton's ideas regarding the colonization of America (1930) deserve to be transcribed in full:
"'At a relatively remote period, probably shortly after the onset of the thaw, there spread over the New World, coming from Asia by the Bering Strait route, groups of dolichocephalans in which were fused at least three races: one closely related to that fundamental swarthy species of Europeans and Africans with elongated heads called "Mediterranean"; another more primitive form, with marked supraorbital ridges, low and broad face and dilated nostrils which we must probably identify as an archaic type represented today very frequently (although it is mixed with other elements) among the Australians and less frequently among the so-called "predravidians" such as the Vedas, and also among the Ainu; yy , third, an element surely negroid (not black). These peoples, already racially crossed, spread over the New World bringing with them a primitive culture of hunters and fishermen. Their arrival must have occurred at a time prior to the occupation of Asia by the predominantly Mongoloid peoples who occupy it today, since the purest types among these dolichocephals do not show the characteristic Mongoloid features'.
"'At a somewhat later period groups of Mongoloids began to arrive in the New World who followed the same path as their predecessors. Many of these were probably of purely Mongoloid race, while others were mixed with some other racial element in which the high-bridged and often convex nose was prominent, and which were perhaps Armenoid or Protonordic (or neither). To these later invaders must be attributed the development of a superior agricultural culture and the remarkable feats accomplished by the New World civilization. In some places they probably displaced and replaced the long-headed men, but it seems that most often they interbred with them, giving rise to the many types of American Indians of today, types that are Mongoloid to varying degrees, but never purely Mongoloid. And finally came the Eskimo, a culturally primitive Mongoloid group.
tive, already crossed with some non-Mongoloid elements before their arrival in North America'. These same ideas are reproduced in a rather similar form in a later book" (Martínez del Río, Los origenes americanos, pp. 263-264). (Martinez del Rio, Los origenes americanos, pp. 263-264).
It is a good summary, but personally we would put Hooton's interpretation much closer to Hrdliçka's than to Imbelloni's, even because of the postglacial epoch from which he makes all his migrations through Bering. In fact, it is another way of appreciating the same things that Hrdliçka presents us, however many variations it may have. As for what interests this work, his Mediterranean, Australian-Aryan and Armenoid racial forms should be bearded, but we do not know if the author has taken care of that point.
We return to Birdsell. Following the above, he persists in denying the existence of Negroid traits in pre-Columbian America, devoting extensive paragraphs to this. As his objections to the case can be applied directly to the facts of the other postulated races, we are obliged to transcribe his paragraphs at length as well:
"With respect to the problem of New World origins the emphasis on the individual has led many anthropologists to believe that they could individualize a Negroid element in East Asia and North America. Montandon (1927) made such assumptions because of a single skull of unknown provenance in Northeastern Siberia. Hooton (1930)0 and others (e.g. Hrdliçka, 1935) saw the same substrate in some American Indian skulls. The specimens brought for testing admittedly appear very Negroid. Should they be considered as biologically satisfactory testimony for the genetic presence of Negroids in those areas? There are four objections to such skulls appearing sporadically in non-Negroid populations that can be considered as conclusive evidence of Negroid genes.
"The race defined on the basis of the data of the living.
defined essentially in terms of morphological features present only in the living. The basic diagnostic characters in many cases cannot be identified in cranial materials. The concept of the negroid race is based on a unique combination of hair shape, skin color, nasal breadth, and lip protrusion (Hooton, pp. 619-620, 1946). Of these, only the nasal width can be related to the skull.
"Cranial criteria of race necessarily different from those of the living, and of secondary derivation.
"Since hair shape, pigmentation, and lip protrusion cannot be reconstructed from osteological remains, the skulls of Negroid populations are defined by other features. They are generally characterized as possessing long, moderately tall heads, small superciliary arches, bombé foreheads, broad and low noses, faces of moderate length and width, relatively high orbits, and alveolar prognathism. Many of these features are also present in the Mongoloid colloid-cranial groups, however it has often been claimed that a skull showing this combination of features is a true negroid.
"3. The range of biological variation within populations, although poorly explored
"The study of within-group variation has been primitively done in terms of statistical constants and sampling theories. The range of variation of individual traits within a population and of constellations of traits within the individual is not adequately known, even at a descriptive level. Analysis of the biological processes involved in such variation has hardly been attempted. The whole problem has been conceptually confused by the attempt to consider non-modal phenotypes in hybrid groups as reincarnations of ancestral forms.
"4. Functional interrelationships of undefined racial traits.
"While statistical methods of analysis are postulated on the independence of the variables involved in racial identification, the biological nature of their interrelationships remains undefined. Washburn (1946) has suggested that the width of the nasal opening in the skull is functionally related to the space between the roots of the maxillary canine teeth and thus to the size of the tooth in the anterior portion of the upper dental arch. In addition, a macrodontic dentition correlates with the presence of prognathism. In the terms of our problem I suspect that individuals from a Mongoloid population of long heads combining large teeth with a narrow face, in many cases strikingly resemble the phenotypic appearance of the true negroid skull.
"In light of the foregoing reasons it would seem reasonable to consider as unproven the cranial identification of Negroid racial elements in those regions where living populations do not present indisputable evidence for their presence..."
Comments are in order. Unfortunately, we do not know Hrdliçka's work on the "negroid" skulls of American Indians, which the author cites, and we would like to know his ideas on this subject, since Birdsell does not explain them. Then we say the following: all his reasoning and interpretative criteria must lead us to deny the Negroid character of the known "Grimaldi race", constituted, let us remember it well, with only two skulls and their complete skeletons.
That Negroid cranial features also exist among the Mongoloids is something we do not doubt, but it is the presence of some of these features in isolation, not the whole set; in this regard we recall that Hrdliçka clearly stated that a Caucasoid skull was, in most cases, indistinguishable from a Mongoloid one and that the real differentiation was between the two groups as a whole and the Negroids.
As for Washburn's interpretation, we have known it for a long time. With it, at the Archaeological Museum of the
University of Cochabamba, which we founded, we have examined many skulls; we found macrodontic teeth in numerous pulsed and laguid skulls, whose face tends to be medium and narrow, especially in the laguids, but in no case did we find that it was related to the presence of prognathism. Undoubtedly there is a relationship with the face in general, but it is not necessarily linked to the appearance of prognathism.
Our author talks a lot about biology, but in truth he enters very little into the subject. His whole effort is directed against considering possible the reappearance of ancestral forms in hybrid groups, by occasional recombination in their descendants. This is against Mendel's Laws. For us, this problem does not exist, since the ancestral forms are transmitted directly in individuals, either in their phenotypes or in the genotype, which reappears in full form because these traits are transmitted by genes of higher hereditary category.
The German-American anthropologist Franz Boas seems to us to have posed the biological problem best, when he said that race should be studied primarily in families and their inheritance, that is, in the individuals who constitute families, not in populations. This also means that the procedures of study based on statistics, even if we are dealing with families assembled (arbitrarily) in populations, are secondary.
Birdsell, following on from the above, continues with his criticism directed at comparisons made with cranial measurements, criticism which is now directed against the presence of Australoids and Melanesoids in America, inasmuch as the comparisons have been made with measurements. We will quote this at some length.
"By the same reasoning Australoid skulls have also been described in many unexpected areas. The presence of large superciliary arches in a narrow skullcase is often considered sufficient evidence for this identification....
*I have had the privilege of examining the original Punin skull in considerable detail. In its cranial proportions
The general appearance seems to resemble those of the Southeastern Australian Murrayans. On the other hand, these same extraordinarily combined diameters are equally characteristic of the Indians of the Santa Catalina Islands off the coast of Southern California... The congenital lack of the upper third molars is characteristic of the Mongoloids rather than the Amurians. Punin's skull in this form may safely be interpreted as representing a Mongoloid type similar to that which inhabited the Southern California Channel Islands....
"In my own limited cranial series work I have come to be confronted with materials that illustrate some of the dangers inherent in this attempt at racial problem solving. The principal data are tabulated in Table 2. The small series of Santa Catalina Islanders was first published by Carr in 1879. I remeasured this same series in 1947 at the Peabody Museum, the deviations between our means for index measurements were due partly to differences in technique and partly to personal equations in sex. Because of the use of the pelvic materials some of Carr's males have been trophied into females. All Australian data in the Table were derived from the southeastern portion of that continent and represented comparatively unmixed Murrayans. [...] Four of these six series represent skulls derived from the territory of a single tribe.....
"Our first comparison, between the Carr skull from Santa Catalina (SC-1) and the generalized Murrayan series ( C-\mathrm{C}- 0 ), provides the extraordinarily low value of 0.39 for the smallest differences of five indices. The smallest difference could be interpreted as interpreting a degree of racial relatedness leading to virtual identity. Although Dixon (1923) had previously argued that the Santa Catalina Islanders had a very strong Australoid element, this is clearly too good to be true for populations separated by the entire length of the Pacific Ocean and presumably by 40,000 years. It is a well-known fact that measurements vary with the person making them. Therefore a comparison was made between the author's measurements based on the same Santa Catalina series and the basic Murrayan model. This comparison is shown in the column headed SC-2 minus C-0. The values for the minimum differences of the indices amount to 1.47 and 1.95 mm for the measurements, both being extraordinarily low values. It is of some interest to note that the comparison between Carr, and I, shown in the column headed SC-2 minus SC-1, shows higher values for both types of racial affinity differences. In the
TABLE 2
DATA ILLUSTRATING THE METHOD OF COMPARATIVE INDICES
Raw data from HrdliCka, regrouped by Birdsell, with. 1 mm subtracted from HrdliCka’s raw data to remove differences in personal equations.
^(**){ }^{*} Calculated from the means.
Carr's case his personal equation made the Channel Island population appear even more closely related to the Murrayans than they appear to be through my measurements. The data analyzed by this methodological system erroneously suggest that these Southern California Mongoloids are virtually racially identical to the archaic white populations of Southeastern Australia."
We interrupt the quotation to ask another usual indiscreet question. We accept that these cranial measurements, despite the similarity they present, do not prove any relationship with Australia, but on the basis of what facts does the author consider and prove that these Southern California skulls belonged to "mongoloids"? Naturally, there is no answer. The same is true for the Punin skull.
for a racial analysis does not possess biological validity even though it carries Pearsonian measurement."
We interrupt the quotation again, because what our author has just expressed is serious, since it results in the absolute uselessness and even falsity of all cranial measurements. We discuss them, but not in that form. It follows from Birdsell's statement that, if a practical identity is demonstrated between Californian skulls and others of an Australian group, that very identity proves that it cannot be and is absurd, so that the craniological method is invalidated. Such an interpretation can only proceed from the existence of an a priori, by which the relationship cannot exist, even if it is demonstrated.
The fact that neighboring Australian populations have different indices does not mean anything different from what happens, for example, in Tierra del Fuego, where the Yamana and the Ona have very different skulls and measurements, no matter how neighboring these tribes are. The same could be said for Norway, where the Borreby racial type, dark-skinned, dark-haired and brachycephalic, is surrounded by the pink-skinned, blond-haired and dolichocephalic Nordic people. Immediate vicinity does not mean racial identity.
Our author goes on to say:
"With the exception of a morphological typology, the relative height of the skull has been the most misleading factor used to infer the racial origins of American aborigines. Hrdliçka (1935) concluded that a narrow and relatively high vault among the Indians did not constitute an indication of genetic relationship to Melanesian peoples.....
"The myth that relative cranial height can be used as a major factor in the racial analysis of complicated hybrid groups still persists, hence a brief summary of certain data from Australia may be illuminating. Using the same six localized series of skulls mentioned previously, with the addition of one more C-7 series, representing 47 skulls from the middle reaches of the Murray River, the following points were noted. These seven series are drawn from an area essentially genetically homogeneous and relatively little crossover in the Murrayans. The most opposite values are obtained by comparing two series that are separated by only about two hundred and fifty miles, C-
2 of the Coorong at the mouth of the Murray River, with C-7 of the middle Murray River. The minimum basio-bregmatic height for the former is 126.96 mm.+-71\mathrm{mm} . \pm 71 , and for the latter 136.05mm.+-56136.05 \mathrm{~mm} . \pm 56 . The width-height index for the Coorong series is 94.59, +-.51\pm .51 compared with 103.11, 土.47. This index shows a range of variation among 31 individuals in the C-2\mathrm{C}-2 series of 15 units, whereas for C-7 the range reaches 19 index units among 47 skulls. Thus two population samples drawn from genetically related groups differ in both absolute heights and index widthaltura almost as much as the total range among the dolichocephalic populations of the World. It must be concluded from these data that basio-bregmatic skull height and its derived indices cannot be used with confidence to postulate putative genetic relationships between geographically distant peoples. The range of variation in these traits among localized groups of Murrayans yields several specific inferences. The great variability demonstrated by the Homo sapiens skulls from Chu-ku-tien need not be interpreted in Weidenreich's terms. A relatively tall skull, whether found in the Mesolithic of Indochina or among American aborigines, is not genetic evidence of a melanesoid trace..."
It seems to be clear: the cephalic height-width index is completely lacking in diagnostic significance, as far as racial classification is concerned.
Unfortunately, we possess the unappreciated quality of having memory of what we write and read, and therefore we recall what was said earlier by Birdsell himself, which we have transcribed when making the description of the three Australian types: Murrayans are characterized, among other features, because "The skull is absolutely and relatively long and low", the carpenters, because "Their cranial vault is characterized by small absolute dimensions, yy is relatively narrow yy high."
The contradiction with the last paragraph quoted is absolute and, by the way, the author has not tried to explain it in any way. We will do it with his own system of interpretation. The Murrayan skulls with high vault (which, naturally, he presents us in average terms in his series, that is, there must be some higher and some lower skulls) must come from individuals mixed with carpenters, from whom they have inherited
that high vault, while its other features appear as corresponding to the Murrayan ones.
The author, Birdsell, gives us ample proof of this in the transcription of his Part III, when he says: "the Mongoloid phenotype acts to mask the presence of carpentary genes", etc., where he describes several individuals of Chinese-Carpentary mixture. Exactly the same would occur with the carpentary-murrayan mixture, since the traits of the latter would mask the former, but not completely, because some internal, cranial traits would persist in the mixture.
4. The American landscape, according to Birdsell
We have already said that our author hardly deals with the South American Indians, except to criticize the "supposed Melanesoids", but the same ones, according to all we know, are the ones who have to present us with the best traces of another primitive population of the continent. This greatly limits their comparative possibilities.
For him, the entire population of the continent - except for small, almost individual groups in the Californian region - is of Mongoloid origin. Unfortunately, following the common procedure in North America, he accepts these Mongoloids en bloc and does not present us with the slightest subdivision of them, nor does he describe them.
What the author states is contained in Part VII, which is entitled Evidence from the Americas and occupies pages 36-39. He begins by telling us the following:
"Having exceeded the scientific privilege of criticism, I am obliged to attempt a synthesis of the evidence that might have some support for the proposed hypothesis of di-hybrid aboriginal origins....
"Studies of living indigenous populations have, in each case, revealed evidence of Mongoloid elements. In many groups a Caucasoid trait also appears to be present. In some
A
C
B
D
Californian Indians, with archaic Caucasoid features. According to Birdsell, plate 4. Of the Cahuilla tribe, Southern California. All, with Amurian, Caucasoid features. The beard and whiskers, in addition to the general features of the face, show well that type, very distinct from the later Mongoloid aborigines.
few areas suggests an Amurian origin. To my knowledge the Cahuilla, a Shoshone-speaking tribe of the Southern California mainland, demonstrate this alleged component very convincingly. Plate 4 illustrates four Cahuilla men. Individual A in Plate 4 was chosen by Georg Neumann to indicate the modal tendency in this tribe. I chose men B, C and D of the same Plate as representative types. This example departs from the broad norms for Indians in the unusual amount of facial (and presumably physical) hair, in the relatively early graying of the beard and hair, in a nose of concave profile and unusual width, in the greatly developed earlobe, and in a marked tendency toward obesity. Photographs suggest that the nasal depression may be deeper and the vault lower than is usual in American groups. Similar features characterize the Murrayans of South Australia, of which three examples are given on Plate 2. They are also present in the Ainian representatives of Hokkaido and Sakhalin, as shown in Plate 3. Anthroposcopically, some of the cahuilla could pass as true Ainu. This photographic evidence, slight as it is, is the best testimony of an Amurian element in the Americas.
"Cranial remains of the Cahuilla are either non-existent or very rare in collections, due to the tribal custom of cremation. Boas measured 194 subadult Indians from the Missions, including 83 cahuillas. His observations are of interest (895, p. 26).
"It is worth noting that the Indians of the Missions, whom we found to belong to the same type, belong to three distinct linguistic branches, and that other members of the Shoshon branch belong to quite distinct physical types. We have in this region, then, another striking case in which the same language may be spoken by people representing quite different types, and that peoples belonging to the same type may speak quite different languages, that is to say that the linguistic and racial classifications are by no means identical.
"'It remains to say a few words about the general appearance of the Indians. Their skin is very dark, I consigned it generally as 33L or 33 m in Radde's color range, but I found that color 33 was not red enough. The creatures very frequently show some degree of epicanthus, which gives the eye a mongoloid appearance, but this trait is not so marked as I found in British Columbia. The nose is often
concave, rather short, but broad with thick fins. The lips are not as thick among the Indians living near the Columbia River. The earlobe is better developed than among the Oregon and Washington Indians, usually round and often detached. The color of the hair turns white very early.'
"I infer from Boas' exposition that the traits he suggests as being of Amurian origin among the Cahuilla were equally characteristic among the Cupeños, Luiseños, and Serranos, the other Shoshone-speaking tribes he measured in his series. Since he includes the Yuma-speaking Diegueños, of whom he measured 35 subadults, in the same physical type, these traits must extend along the coast to some extent to the south... It is noteworthy that Boas does not extend the Cahuilla type into the vast expanses of the more northern highland Shoshone tribes, which are numerically dominant. However, the portraits reveal these traits in greatly diminished frequency as far Northeast as Las Vegas, Nevada. The two old ones, Plate 6, A, are not typical of the Chemehuevi but at least suggest it. The Mohave seem to represent the easternmost limit to the diminishing lines of these demarcating features. The vigorously bearded 'paiute', presumably a tübatulabal, A, from the same Plancha, represents the type found among the Cahuilla. Further north, the western monkeys show these more diluted features, which tend to disappear among the eastern monkeys. Thus the Shoshone tribes of southern California differ markedly from the Great Basin Shoshone in physical characteristics. Despite the linguistic uniformities the Cahuilla bloc suggests the marginal survival of an older racial trait than that which is generally represented in the Utes and Paiutes..."
Again, we interrupt the quotation to make some comments. The description he gives us of the Amurian type in America, limited to a number of small areas in California, shows us a kind of Sancho Panza. Its location as an ancient population submerged by later populations we find good and so do the observations that today they speak different languages. It is very important that all his descriptions are made on photographs and descriptions of Franz Boas, so that cranial measurements are completely missing, despite the measurements on living individuals, carried out by Boas.
We have deleted from the quotation a few paragraphs in which Boas comments on
and tries to explain the exclusion made before, as Murrayanos, of the islanders of Santa Catalina, insisting that the traits of the living Indians are more valuable to trace racial relations than the metric data and indexes of the skulls. He goes on to say:
mongoloides.
"The skeletal data offer no support. The Punín skull, as stated above, should be aligned with those of the Santa Catalina Islanders and like them should be placed on a waiting account. The skulls of Lagõa Santa, the Fuegians, the selected series of Paltacalo dolichocranea, and the so-called pericue of Lower California, have all been exposed by various authors to document the presence of an ancient and primitive non-Mongoloid trait in the Indians. I am not convinced, after having scrutinized the literature, that these groups demonstrate any Amurian affinities. Among the skulls attributed to primitive man, only Brown's Valley Man very strongly suggests that type. The rest reveal only an ill-defined Caucasoid element. One may conclude that the cranial materials even offer less validity to the Amurian-Mongoloid hypothesis than the living peoples give it."
Interesting is that, in the first paragraph quoted now, the Yuki -from the Californian coast- are pointed out as having representatives of this type. It is valuable to remember that these yuki are presented by Canals Frau as typifying his Californids, which he supposes to be of primitive Mongoloid origin. To this effect, in his Prehistory of America, he presents us with a drawing, taken from a photograph, of a Yuki Indian; its Amurian features seem to us to be unquestionable.
Birdsell's thesis, in all this, is that the American population is of Amurian-Mongoloid di-hybrid origin and that Amurian traits easily disappear in admixture as they become dominated by Mongoloid traits; in this form, mongrels having less than 30%30 \% Amurian traits would be completely unrecognizable.
In the continuation of the quotation, Birdsell tells us that, outside of California, the Amurian element is unsatisfactory in the known evidence; he does not cite South American facts which are evident, as we shall see, greater even than those of California, as is logical because of the greater possibility of their preservation in more remote places.
We now come to Part VIII of his monograph, entitled The doctrine of intermediate hybrids, pages 49-53. There we also find interpretative doctrine worthy of transcription:
"The cahuilla and pomo data may seem too flimsy to the reader to hold their weight. In my understanding, however, a proper interpretation of these populations already goes so far as to confirm the possibility of this di-hybrid hypothesis. The answer to the dilemma lies in yet another basic assumption that has been almost universally used in racial analysis. I cannot but quote Andrews' (43, p. 105) exposition of the case:
'In investigating anthropometric data for evidence of racial admixture, which is historically assumed to have taken place, and conversely, in investigating a mass of data with the object of constructing a hypothetical pattern of racial origins and admixtures responsive to the issues, anthropologists make almost exclusive use of a single untested hypothesis: the assumption that an admixed people may produce mean values at physical traits that are intermediate between the minimum values for the same traits, in the two component stocks.'
"This doctrine of intermediate hybrids between parental types needs analysis and confirmation.
"It seems possible that some traits show such intermediate values in hybrid populations. In the terms of genetic theory it might be anticipated that metric and morphological characteristics whose phenotypic expressions are determined by multiple factors would show a tendency toward predicted intermediacy as a resultadộ of a statistical synthesis of their individual effects. On the other hand, traits that are expressions of a relatively simple genetic origin would be anticipated, to deviate from such an expectation. As an addition to the genetic basis of the trait, the type and composition of the population being sampled also enters into the problem. Mass hybridization appearing in a population could possibly express more of this postulated intermediation than admixture between the same racial ingredients appearing in a small population. In the latter case, over time, the effects of the original intermediation could be highly distorted by the operations of the random gene movement process. The author has considerable data material to suggest that, in Australia, a region characterized by small population formation, the intermediacy predicted for hybrids is often not realized and even exceeds the extremes shown in one of the related groups. For this reason, it is suggested that the doctrine of intermediate hybrids does not offer a
The results of this study are a sure guide, either to predict the results of hybridization or to attempt the reconstruction of related types in an admixed population. This result is important because most human groups are presumed to have had small populations until the advent of Neolithic agriculture.
"Hybrid intermediates do not characterize some racial crosses as far as appearance is concerned. The three, F-ls, Mongoloid carpenters shown in Plate 1 show a marked tendency toward the paternal element. The point is much more strongly demonstrated in Plate 7-, A-F. These three males are the first generation crosses between Mongoloid parents and Australian Aboriginal females. In this case the females were from tribes that had been predominantly, though not exclusively, Murrayan. Two of the hybrids are descendants of South Chinese immigrant parents, the third is a Malay. This crossbreeding is close to what I have suggested as a hypothesis for the formation of the populations of the Americas.
"The visual impact provided by these hybrids seems to me to be dominant. All three are certainly predominantly Mongoloid in appearance, but whether the carpentary-Mongoloid F-ls were reminiscent of Southeast Asian and Indonesian populations, these hybrids are suggestive of certain American Indian types. The Murrayan genes are expressed albeit weakly in the phenotype and are specifically shown only in the nasal depression, which is more pronounced than is common in the New World, although it remains well within the range of individual variation. The hybrid of Plank 7 A-B is abundantly bearded, but no more so than some cahuilla and knob. The wavy hair in C-D of the same Plate may be due to Negroid genes that are present in the tribal area of this individual's mother. Many of the demarcating Murrayan features have disappeared. Baldness and obesity are absent. The large, pendulous earlobes are reduced to normal proportions. The nasal morphology is more Mongoloid than Murrayan. The rounded nasal protrusion is more refined and the nasal width is decreased to near American Indian averages. Physical hair is suppressed and graying of the hair appears delayed.
"It should be noted that the two hybrids of Plate 7 C-E are shown to be generalized Caucasoid rather than Murrayan in traits, but rather their appearance is reminiscent of a Mediterranean type of white element. I am sure that the Amurian heritage in a Mongoloid mixture often erroneously suggests the latter very distant racial group.
"Finally, these hybrids allow rough estimation of the racial composition of the Cahuilla and Pomo. There is reason to suppose that the three F-ls illustrated are representatives of this cross, in which gene frequencies are shown to be 50%50 \% Murrayan and 50%50 \% Mongoloid. To my eyes, both cahuilla and pomo reveal more phenotypic Amurian traits than these F-ls reveal. Even if one were to presuppose that the Indians shown in Plates 4 and 5 are not a completely random sample of their tribes (although I consider it to be close to the modal type), sin\sin it is nevertheless necessary to consider that the Amurian gene frequency among the Cahuilla and Pomo falls within the 40.-60%40 .-60 \% range. Today's Ainu, who are clearly admixed, may contain Mongoloid gene frequencies between 10-20%10-20 \% . In terms of these landmarks, and the evidence of Mongoloid preponderance in phenotypic traits in crosses involving Amurians, I believe that, when the gene frequency of the former reaches or exceeds 70%70 \% , there remain no visible or measurable traits of the archaic Caucasoid element that I consider underlying American populations."
We leave most of the comments to be dealt with in the next chapter, since we have already exceeded the length of the present chapter. However, we will make here a small comment on the penultimate paragraph, where it is said that the individuals of the 7C-E7 \mathrm{C}-\mathrm{E} Plate are reminiscent of the Mediterranean racial type. For us, the Mediterraneans are a very different thing, but we do recognize that among them there are abundant elements of allogenic origin, among which there are traits similar to those treated. The type represented by the author in his two illustrations, E-F, seems to us that in South America it would be considered a common indigenous, pampid type, like the Toba of the restaurant of Rosario to which we have already alluded, is extremely far from what we consider as Mediterranean.
We come to Part IX of our author, Birdsell, entitled Refinement of the problem in terms of conceptual approach, pages 54-62.
In these pages, half of the text is spent discussing and denying, as we shall see, the importance of the protruding and curved nose that appears among the Indians, which has been considered to be of Caucasoid origin of the Armenoid race. To this
The author includes it among his "Mediterraneans", a meeting that seems arbitrary to us, since it includes very different racial forms, starting with the fact that this curved nose appears among these "Mediterraneans", usually accompanied by brachycephaly.
We will transcribe most of the text, since it is of direct relevance to what we will deal with in the following chapters:
"The feature I have called 'nasal protuberance' is a common variation in skulls of Indians and others. If it has been described in the literature, its probable racial significance seems to have been diminished. The condition is illustrated in Figure 3, along with the 'normal condition' of nasal growth and the opposite condition, which might be called 'nasal decrease'. In what is conceived as the 'normal' condition of nasal bone growth, the lateral free lower margins of the nasal bones are paired with the uppermost maxillary border of the nasal aperture. Thus the rim of the aperture is generally continuous across the naso-maxillary suture. In the condition called 'protrusion', the nasal bones project so far beyond the maxillary superior border as to give a positive stepped appearance with an abrupt discontinuity appearing at the suture. In nasal downgrowth, the opposite, a negative staggered appearance appears suggesting that the nasal bones have been deficient in growth compared to what was expected based on the height of the frontal processes of the maxillary bone.
"I suggest that the growth patterns of the nasal bones are inherited independently of the genetic growth tendencies of the maxillary bone...the inferior borders are not restricted in their growth tendencies by a need to adapt to the relationships imposed by other bones. In cases of overgrowth the nasal bones may have inherited a genetic growth pattern that exceeds that of the frontal processes of the maxillary bone. In nasal degrowth the opposite would be true. In cases of normal growth, both regions have inherited compatible trends of normal growth.
"This digression is not without significance in the analysis of American populations. There is an impression that living Indians are generally characterized by convex nasal profiles. A number of authors have introduced a special racial element.
which gives validity to this trait. Thus Hooton suggested ('46, pp. 642-649) that the hook-nosed Iranian highlander subrace of the Mediterranean race might be responsible for the presence of this trait in the Americas. Anthropologists have considered the convex profile nose as a unit character. This is a possible assumption, but not the only feasible one. In light of the racial complexities that the concept has created, it is heading toward a reinvestigation....
"This scanty though suggestive evidence will need further corroboration, but it is sufficient to cast doubt on the inheritance of the convex nasal profile as a character of genetic unity. A small series of Santa Cruz Islanders shows that among 23 males observed, eight have some degree of protrusion, thirteen show normal growth, and two reveal decrease. The protrusion condition ranges from +0.5 to +3.0 mm . In nineteen women, except for one, there is protrusion, eight have normal growth and ten have decrease. Their range was +0.5a+6.0mm+0.5 \mathrm{a}+6.0 \mathrm{~mm} . for decrement. These limited data suggest that nasal protrusion may be common enough to account for most of the nasal convexity found among Indians. Females in this series show a much lower frequency of protrusion and a higher incidence of decrement [...].
"It seems reasonable, for present purposes, to conclude that the convex nasal profile commonly found in aboriginal indigenous America does not require the introduction of an exotic hook-nosed racial element for its explanation, but may result from the blending of various Mongoloid and Amurian elements characterized by distinct nasal and facial gene growths."
This is a hypothesis, certainly a reasonable one, but not proof. It occurs to us that a consultation with a physician specialized in nose plastic surgery would have been extremely enlightening, but neither we nor the author have done that. In any case, one thing is clear: those noses were annoying and Birdsell presents us with an adequate explanation for putting them aside. We too, in our series of skulls measured in Bolivia, have abundantly found the three forms expressed, but it did not occur to us to study them in this way.
Finally, we come to Part X of the work we are discussing.
It consists of his Conclusions (pages 63-64), which we will reproduce in large part:
"... The reconstructed pattern of peoples in East Asia, as well as the scant archaeological evidence, suggests a di-hybrid origin for the American Indians. The two racial elements present at the right time and place for the peopling of the New World were the Amurians and the Mongoloids. If modern man arrived in the New World as early as during the third interglacial period, this type is predicted to be Amurian without admixture in characteristics. Any people group that migrated across the Bering Strait in post-glacial times should be di-hybrid in origin. It is believed that the Mongoloid component in the immigrants should increase in the course of time.
"... The di-hybrid hypothesis finds little confirmation in American skulls, due to the nature of the data now available. Living Indians, sin\sin however, reveal two apparent foci of marker Amurian traits: the Cahuilla block of inland tribes of Southern California greatly suggest a high frequency of these archaic Caucasoid features; the Pomo and Yuki tribes of coastal Northern California show parallel traits. In both areas there is some suggestion that the physical type is marginal and predates the arrival of today's spoken languages.
"The doctrine of hybrid intermixing is considered in some cases to be of doubtful validity. Murrayan-Mongoloid hybrids are preponderantly Mongoloid in phenotype. A comparison suggests that, cahuilla and pomo may contain Amurian genes in the same frequency range between 40-60%40-60 \% . In a Mongoloid-Amurian population hybrid in which the gene frequencies of the latter element fell below 30%30 \% it is believed that it could not be discovered by sight or instrument [...]"
Now, two brief comments; we will expand on the second later. The first is the acceptance made by the author of the possibility that the first modern men who populated the American continent did so as early as during the last interglacial, something with which we are in complete agreement, but which is at variance with both in the fact that, in all the authors we know, the appearance of Modern Man is placed at a much later date, in the last interstadial of the last glaciation. In the author we are dealing with, nothing explains that.
australoid Indians, in NEVADA. According to Birdsell, plate 6, upper part. They belong to the Paiute tribe of South Las Vegas, Nevada, linguistic group Shoshon. The author tells us that there are similar individuals in other neighboring Shoshon groups. Their racial type is, according to Birdsell, Amurian, that is, Ainoid, immediately related to his Murrayan group, that is, to the most typical Australians and corresponding to archaic Caucasoids. The truth is that we find that the features of his face and body in general are more Carpathian than Amurian, as can be seen by comparing them with the illustrations of the Syrian Indians of Bolivia, which we present. His lack of baldness is manifest.
The second point or comment refers to the last paragraph discussed, where we are told that, if the Amurian element in America were to fall under a 30%30 \% , it could not be discovered by sight or by instrument. Sorry, but that is at odds with the first and most elementary of Mendel's Laws of Heredity, according to which units of inheritance do not mix but persist through the generations. That interpretation in a 30%30 \% corresponds to a coffee-with-milk interpretative idea, in contradiction with the laws of heredity we know today.
Capitulo IV
Primitive bearded men in America
1. Primitive bearded men in South America.
In the pages of the previous chapter, we have presented in a very extensive way the studies and interpretations made by Birdsell on the first origins of the American Indian population, its sources of origin in the Siberian territory and its marginal survivals in Oceania, in addition to his biological interpretations of the case. This monograph seemed to us, from the moment we knew it, extremely valuable; for that reason we have devoted so much length and so many transcriptions to it.
The biological part, especially as regards the inheritance of human types, is of the greatest importance to us. We have commented on it quite a lot, as well as on his other points of interpretation, and we will give it special attention in the next chapter, although it is also necessary to say a few words about it here. In his interpretative thesis on the inheritance of human forms or types, he basically follows the theories of Hrdliçka (we do not say with this that this author is the original creator of these ideas), as far as he refers to what are the most important features that characterize the races. It is well known that, in this respect, there are two fundamental theses, which consist in the fact that the authors focus - as a basic rule - on the cephalic and cranial measurements (in addition to the body measurements) and on the external features, especially the color of the skin, hair and eyes, in addition to the general visible features of the face of the individuals. Birdsell focuses especially on the latter; Imbelloni and Canals Frau on the former. We try to keep in mind
We consider that the former allows for a more complete study, although we consider that the latter allows for a more complete study.
Also, and this is a common defect in almost all researchers, the author focuses only on the male individuals of the races he studies. Of the authors we have dealt with, only Canals Frau presents us with female figures, in drawings, to characterize his races (in his Prehistory of America), but in the text he does not refer to them at all and describes male averages. The cited drawings were included due to our direct influence, when he had already written the text of his work, but the author did not recognize it, since we were then working under his orders at the National Ethnic Institute of Buenos Aires.
The summary that we can make, personally, of what Birdsell has expressed is that for him, the visible external characters are the only basis for the recognition of the presence of individuals of Amurian type in America. That is what he finds with clarity in a series of photographs of present and recent Indians from the Californian region; at the same time, he dismisses all comparable materials from South America. Evidently, the latter he does not know very well, in contrast to the North American materials, of which he is fully aware. In fact, with respect to South America, he only refers to archaeological finds in order to reject them, according to his interpretative basis, as in the case of the Punin skull and the individuals of the latex race.
The latter have, basically, the cranial measurements he points out to us in his carpentary race, but he not only refrains from saying this, but even goes to great lengths to eliminate the carpentaries from some possible ancient path to pre-Columbian America, carefully avoiding their possible existence in Siberia and North China, as he does with the female skulls of Chu-ku-tien, which exhibit those somatic characters.
The same features are present in South America in individuals of the so-called lagid race, which are distinguished especially by their very high skull, with a vertex-transverse index that
always exceeds 100 and whose bizygomatic width is usually slightly greater than the greatest cranial width. This last trait is sometimes present in individuals - we should say in skulls - of the pampas breed, but then, normally, it is not accompanied by this high height of the skull. All the other American breeds always present a cranial width less than the greatest bizygomatic width, except the huárpidos of Canals Frau.
In this and the next chapter, we will do something unusual: we will try to adhere to the rules proposed by Birdselh, that the external features, visible in the photographs and in the text descriptions, are the fundamental ones to determine the breeds. We will make some references, inevitably, to features of internal measurements, but this will be minimal; we will be guided mainly by the illustrations we have been able to obtain.
For the same reason, we leave aside the cranial series, although we personally find them important yy , in any case, we try to refer only to some measurements in living individuals. This will be our general rule as far as description is concerned, but we repeat that, inevitably, we will have to depart from it sometimes.
With such a perspective, the first thing we find in South America is the presence of a small but compact group of people similar to what Birdsell presents in California. This results both from the illustrations that we include and from the descriptions in the texts. However - and in honor of Birdsell - we especially point out that most of what refers to the case has been published and clarified in later years to the edition of our author who, undoubtedly, before these illustrations, would have recognized there a population similar to his Amurian Californians.
This population is located in eastern Paraguay. It consists of indigenous people called Guayaquíes, whose cultural level is extremely low.
2. The Guayaquians and their belonging to the Caucasoid Amurian race.
We already know enough about these Indians, since we have transcribed extensively what the French author Jacques de Mahieu tells us, in his work The Great Journey of the Sun-God published in 1976, while Birdsell's monograph was published in 1951. Let us remember that Mahieu supposes that those Guayaquians belong to the Nordic race, mestizo with Mongoloid, Guarani elements, something that we will not pretend to discuss here because we simply want to present our interpretation.
To begin with, we will make another series of quotations from a new author longrightarrow\longrightarrow better, authors- of a brief monograph of anthropological study. We refer to Luigi Miraglia and E. Saguier Negrete, whose work is entitled Somatic and Serological Observations in the Guayaki Race. The work is short and consists of two parts, signed successively by both authors. The work was published in 1969, that is, well before Mahieu's work, but also after Birdsell's work.
We will quote quite extensively what the first author tells us in Part One, whose title is Somatic Observations. We begin the quotations from his first lines:
"I. General - Development and Method of Inquiry
"The only existing description of the physical characteristics of the Guayaki breed is the one I published in 1961. This is due to the fact that previous observers never had, as I had, under their eyes, a sufficient number of adult males. Prior to my work (as can be seen from the bibliography at the end of this article), one skeleton, some skulls and, in addition, one live adult male, the carcass of an adult male (killed in an ambush) and eight adolescents of both sexes had been studied. The purpose of this article is to complete my previous description of the physical characteristics of the interesting Guayakí race, which is about to become extinct, with the observations I have collected in a recent expedition. A very important contribution to my research is given by the observations of the blood, the stature and the large wingspan of the Guayakí collected by Dr. Emilio Saguier Negrete, who received the following information
at the Faculty of Medicine of Asuncion (Paraguay). Dr. Saguier Negrete's remarks have been literally translated from the Spanish manuscript into Italian by me and constitute the second part of this article.
"No more than 700 of these aborigines still free, roaming the Paraguayan jungle, along the headwaters of the tributaries of the Paraguay and Parana rivers. The springs meander along the meridian 56 Long. West, Greenwich.
"In 1908 the first friendly contact, which lasted some years, was made between a horde of Guayakíes and the German F. Mayntzhusen. On August 20, 1959, a horde of 20 Guayakíes wandering along the Ypety, a tributary of the Monday which in turn is a tributary of the Paraná River, continuously persecuted, stayed at the source of the Morotí stream establishing peaceful contacts with the Paraguayan Manuel Pereira who lives on a ranch on the edge of the jungle. In order to protect these aborigines, the state intervened and the Guayakí colony number one was founded in Arroyo Morotí, whose direction was entrusted to the aforementioned Pereira.
"Arroyo Morotí is located 50 km ., in a straight line, by air, from the city of Villa Rica, southeast and a dozen kilometers from both the town of San Juan Nepomuceno, and the village of Abaf. This one is connected by a railway branch of 65 km. to San Salvador, station located on the main line of the railroad Asunción-Encarnación.
"In the world of ethnologists, sociologists, linguists and anthropologists, the news of the appearance of the Guayakíes gave rise to a dull competition.
"From October 13 to 16 (4 days), 1959 I observed, in Arroyo Morotí, the Guayakí horde of the Ypety appeared on August 20 of the same year, which was formed by 10 adult males, 5 females, also adults and 5 adolescents. I observed that this group was very homogeneous for all its somatic characters, including the white color of the skin. Subsequently to my visit, another 5 individuals belonging to this horde joined their relatives in Arroyo Morotí. As I wrote in my aforementioned work, I have been forbidden to take photographs and measurements. I had planned to limit the measurements to the size and the large wingspan since, as can be deduced from the bibliography, craniometric measurements made by great masters abound.
"Getting close to the Guayakis, barefoot and knowing well the height of my acronym, which is 1.40 meters, I was able to compare their height and I calculated that they were about 1530 millimeters tall.
Dr. Saguier Negrete with the anthropometer, in 28 adult males has found that the average height was 1544 millimeters. We can now give exact measurements of the wingspan which in my previous description I had to limit myself to point out as simply greater than the height. We can now present original photographs while to illustrate my previous description, which was published in spite of all the obstacles, I had to resort to the kindness of the Andres Barbero Museum of Asuncion. In July 1962 another horde of 50 individuals was captured living in the highlands of Ybyturuzú which, with its steep and inaccessible valleys, arises near the city of Villa Rica. With this capture the Guayakies of Arroyo Morotí reached 75 individuals.
"In contact with the 'civilized' began among the 'savages' a mortality, caused in the latter, by the lack of antibodies. To the mortality contributed, in addition, the change of the food diet and the customs.
"On September 17 and 18, 1965 the aforementioned Dr. Saguier Negrete, Dr. in philosophy, Spanish Jesuit Ramón Juste, and I were in Arroyo Morotí. We found there 25 Guayakíes of which 8 were adult males, 4 females, also adults, and 13 adolescents of both sexes. In this group I saw again only Pyky, Gūiragui and two other Guayakíes that I had studied on my first trip to Arroyo Morotí from October 13 to 16, 1959. Pereira showed me the 5 individuals of the same horde that arrived in Arroyo Morotí after my first visit to that locality. They are totally white skinned like all the other components of the horde. Among the remaining 18 individuals, belonging to the Ybyturuzú group, I observed two adult males and two adolescents, also males, who, in spite of presenting all the racial characteristics, have more pigmented skin than the others. We noticed that the 25 Indians were convalescing from smallpox (see fig. 4). Pereira explained to us that we had found only 25 Guayakí because they come and go between the camp and the jungle where they hunt for honey and game. Pyky and Güiragui accompanied us to the graves of two companions of the horde that they themselves had buried. With their help we unearthed two skeletons of adult males. With the skeleton collected by Ten Kate in 1896 (female) and these two (male), the skeletons unearthed to date are three.
"The photographs illustrating this article were taken on site by the three members of the expedition, who on their return to Asunción published a communication that appears in the bibliography N^(@)8.^('')\mathrm{N}^{\circ} 8 .{ }^{\prime \prime} (Ob. cit., pp. 139-142).
THE OLDEST POPULATION IN THE AMERICAS. Indlgena of the Guayaqui tribe, from eastern Paraguay. According to Luigi Miraglia, Fig. 4. The author tells us: "Note: the lack of the plica and the mongoloid aspect; the bushy beard, rare in Amerindians; the camerrinia; the prominence of the supraorbital arches; ..." We add: the frontal entrances in principle of calvicle.
We interrupt the quotation to make a few brief comments. In the first place, it does not seem right to us to call the indigenous people treated as "males" and "females", because in Spanish it sounds rather pejorative. It should have been written "men" and "women", which is what corresponds in our language.
In addition, we have reproduced at length the author's words, including paragraphs that do not concern us much, but which we consider useful to have a better view of the conditions in which these natives live. As for the color clearly
The white of the skin of these natives is clearly and completely affirmed by the author, as well as by Mahieu, and at the same time it is completely missing in the descriptions of the most ancient Cahuilla and Pomo described by Birdsell; on the contrary, he sometimes tells us that their skin is very dark. Is it that they are mixed with Carpathian elements, to whom, in Australia, he assigns a very dark skin? This could be found out by measuring the height of the head or the bizygomatic width of these natives, but we have no reports of this.
We continue the quote, in a second part by the same author:
"II. The Guayakí race was kept pure by the geographic isolation and by the continuous persecution to which it was subjected.
"The Guayakí hordes roam naked, without building dwellings, in areas completely isolated from each other. This has been demonstrated by the fact that the Ypety and Ybyturuzú hordes, before being captured, never had contact with each other. The 'hunting zone' of each horde is divided into sectors. They let the wild animals 'rest' by returning to a certain sector where they had already hunted, only after a long time. They hunt: with bare hands, with the bow and with 'trap-pits'. For the collection of honey they use stone axes.
"The Guayakí 'islands' are surrounded by the habitat of tribes that call themselves Avá. This shows that the former are aboriginal and the latter later immigrants. The Avá speak the Guarani language. To avoid confusion, I would like to point out to the Italian reader that there is no race but only one Guarani language, a fact known to ethnologists and South American linguists.
"The Ava tribes belong, somatically, to the Amazonian race, which extends over a vast territory of tropical America and includes, besides the Ava, many other tribes that speak different languages.
"The absolute isolation in which the Guayakis have been confined since ancient times has made it impossible for them to hybridize with other races, including the Amazonian.
BALDNESS IN THE AMURIAN CAUCASOIDS OF AMERICA. Indigenous of the Guayaqul tribe of eastern Paraguay. According to L. Miraglia: Observaclones somáticas y serológicas en la Raza Guayakr, Fig. 3. Note the baldness, which does not appear in the later American population and which is present here in a remarkable form. The skin color of these individuals is white.
"The Avá Amazonians (of the Monday River and the Itakyry) have told me, more than once, with contempt, that they consider the Guayakíes inferior to many animals. Pride, more than geographical isolation, prevents the mixing of two human races. We have examples of this in India and in the United States of America where slaves and owners - of two different races - live mixed. At present, in the Congo, the Pig.moid hunters exchange meat for the vegetable products of the surrounding tribes of large farmers in certain parts of the jungle. A similar exchange, probably in a remote time, took place between the Avá, who practice primitive agriculture, and the Guayakí hunters. These, to facilitate the exchanges, would have adopted the Guarani language of the Amazonian tribes that surrounded them.
"These brief notes are addressed to those few ethnologists and linguists who classify the Guayakí as a 'Guarani tribe'. This denomination induces to think, erroneously, in the fusion of two races, which never took place.
"Be that as it may, to want to affirm that the Guayakí and the Avá are of the same race would be like maintaining that white and black North Americans are of the same race because, at present, they speak English.
"Advancing towards the east the Paraguayan colonizers exterminate the Guayakíes because these eat their corn, their manioc and their horses that they kill with arrows. It is obvious that among the persecuted Guayakí hordes no hybrids can be formed. The Guayakíes captured in their childhood, after the slaughter of their parents, can beget hybrids but these remain among the Paraguayan population.
"Racial pride is opposed to the formation of hybrids between Paraguayans and aborigines. In addition, the former attribute to the latter a repugnant racial odor that they call 'catinga'." (Ob. cit., pp. 142-143).
New observations. The use of stone axes by the Guayaquí is something that has been used by several authors to classify their cultural level as Neolithic, but, although it is true that the form and the way of working of those stone axes are Neolithic, the rest of the culture of this people is not, it is much more primitive, of primitive gatherers of a fully Paleolithic cultural level, which would correspond to a Mousterian, according to our interpretation. Also the bow and arrow have
GUAYAQUI WOMAN, according to Luigi Miraglia. The author tells us: "Note: the large camerninia; the very sunken nasion; the trilobed base of the nose; the equilateral triangle shape of the nose; the great distance between the inner corners of the eyes; the visible lacrimal cannulae; prominence of the supraorbital arches". (Photo by the authors). Compare the physiognomy of this woman with those of the Amurian ainos that we present.
must have been taken from later tribes, undoubtedly Preguaraní, since it is of a very large type, larger than the height of those who handle it, its section is circular, etc., while the Guaraní arch is small. In addition, at the Neolithic level, agriculture already fully exists, which the Guayaquíes lack.
As for the neighboring "avá" tribes, for us and on the basis of their way of counting, they are also pre-Guarani peoples who have been fully Guaraniized. These tribes, although for us
In the Guarani words, they count by twos and at most by fives, while the real Guarani counted by fives and twenties (hands and feet).
Regarding the difference between the Guayaquíes and the Amazónidos, the author points it out very well and expands on it in a part of his work, which constitutes an ample racial Table, which we copy in its entirety.
"III. Physical characteristics of the Guayakí breed compared with those of the Amazónide breed.
Somatic elements
Guayakí Breed
Amazonian Breed (AVA)
Height
Uniformly low. mean of 10 males: 1,530. mean of 24 males: 1,544.
Medium and non-uniform.
Complexion
Uniform Eurosomatics. Large thoracic perimeter. Well developed musculature.
Lysotriches. 3 individuals with baldness. Bushy or sparse beard.
Lysotropic. No baldness. Sparse or generally absent.
Head
Remarkably large in relation to the body.
Normal.
Skull
Generally brachycephalic and orthocephalic.
Generally mesocephalon and orthocephalon.
Front
Remarkably flat and vertical. 2 males and 1 female with supra-orbital relief.
Notablemente chata y vertical.
2 varones y 1 mujer con relieves supra-orbitarios.| Notablemente chata y vertical. |
| :--- |
| 2 varones y 1 mujer con relieves supra-orbitarios. |
Convex and slightly inclined backwards.
Cara
Mesoprosopic.
Meso-brachy-prosopic.
Cheekbones
Protruding more anteriorly than laterally.
Outstanding more laterally than previously.
Elementos somáticos Raza Guayakí Raza Amazónide (AVA)
Estatura Uniformemente baja. media de 10 varones: 1.530 . media de 24 varones: 1.544. Media y no uniforme.
Complexión Eurosomática uniforme. Perímetro torácico grande. Musculatura muy desarrollada. Leptosomática. Per. torácico regular. Musc. median. desarr.
Pigmentación Subpigmentada (leucodermos). Median. pigmentada.
Pelos Lisotricos. 3 individuos con calvicie. Barba tupida o rala. Lisótricos. No existe calvicie. Rala o generalmente ausente.
Cabeza Notablemente grande con respecto al cuerpo. Normal.
Cráneo Generalmente braquicéfalo y ortocéfalo. Generalmente mesocéfalo y ortocéfalo.
Frente "Notablemente chata y vertical.
2 varones y 1 mujer con relieves supra-orbitarios." Convexa y ligeramente inclinada hacia atrás.
Cara Mesoprosópica. Meso-braqui-prosópica.
Pómulos Sobresalientes más anteriormente que lateralmente. Sobresaliente más lateralmente que anteriormente.| Elementos somáticos | Raza Guayakí | Raza Amazónide (AVA) |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Estatura | Uniformemente baja. media de 10 varones: 1.530 . media de 24 varones: 1.544. | Media y no uniforme. |
| Complexión | Eurosomática uniforme. Perímetro torácico grande. Musculatura muy desarrollada. | Leptosomática. Per. torácico regular. Musc. median. desarr. |
| Pigmentación | Subpigmentada (leucodermos). | Median. pigmentada. |
| Pelos | Lisotricos. 3 individuos con calvicie. Barba tupida o rala. | Lisótricos. No existe calvicie. Rala o generalmente ausente. |
| Cabeza | Notablemente grande con respecto al cuerpo. | Normal. |
| Cráneo | Generalmente braquicéfalo y ortocéfalo. | Generalmente mesocéfalo y ortocéfalo. |
| Frente | Notablemente chata y vertical. <br> 2 varones y 1 mujer con relieves supra-orbitarios. | Convexa y ligeramente inclinada hacia atrás. |
| Cara | Mesoprosópica. | Meso-braqui-prosópica. |
| Pómulos | Sobresalientes más anteriormente que lateralmente. | Sobresaliente más lateralmente que anteriormente. |
Somatic elements
Guayakí Breed
Amazonian Breed (AVA)
Nose
Mesorrin in major part.
Generally with marked platyrrhinia. Shaped like an equilateral triangle. Nasion very sunken. The dihedral angle formed by the suture of the two nasal bones is very obtuse. Trilobed base very accentuated in some individuals. Very concave profile.
Generalmente con marcada platirrinia.
Tiene forma de triángulo equilátero.
Nasión muy hundido.
El ángulo diedro formado por la sutura de los dos huesos nasales es muy obtuso.
Base trilobada muy acentuada en algunos individuos. Perfil muy cóncavo.| Generalmente con marcada platirrinia. |
| :--- |
| Tiene forma de triángulo equilátero. |
| Nasión muy hundido. |
| El ángulo diedro formado por la sutura de los dos huesos nasales es muy obtuso. |
| Base trilobada muy acentuada en algunos individuos. Perfil muy cóncavo. |
Nasion not sunken. Normal.
Straight or slightly convex profile.
Long nostrils, often turned upwards.
Medium nostrils always turned downward.
Eyes
Inner corners of the eyes separated by a great distance due to flattening of the nasal bones.
Eyes normally separated.
Boca
Medium thick lips, some with slightly raised lips due to slight alveolar prognathism.
Mongolian plica always present.
Ears
With lobe always "cecil" (attached to the face).
"Cecil" or not "cecil".
Collar
Thick, due to the great development of the trapezoids.
Normal.
Trunk
Long, with respect to size.
Normal.
Chest
Large thoracic perimeter.
Normal.
Pelvis
Narrow.
Normal.
Spine
Very marked curvature, especially in the lumbar region.
Normal.
Thoracic muscles
Very well developed, especially the pectoral muscles, the
Normal.
Elementos somáticos Raza Guayakí Raza Amazónide (AVA)
Nariz Mesorrina en mayor parte.
"Generalmente con marcada platirrinia.
Tiene forma de triángulo equilátero.
Nasión muy hundido.
El ángulo diedro formado por la sutura de los dos huesos nasales es muy obtuso.
Base trilobada muy acentuada en algunos individuos. Perfil muy cóncavo." Nasión no hundido. Normal.
Perfil derecho o poco convexo.
Narinas largas, vueltas con frecuencia hacia arriba. Narinas medianas vueltas siempre hacia abajo.
Ojos Ángulos internos de los ojos separados por una gran distancia a causa del achatamiento de los huesos nasales. Ojos separados normalmente.
Boca Labios medianamente gruesos, algunos con labios un poco levantados debido a un ligero prognatismo alveolar. Plica mongólica siempre presente.
Orejas Con lóbulo siempre "cecil" (unido a la cara). "Cecil" o no "cecil".
Cuello Grueso, por el gran desarrollo de los trapecios. Normal.
Tronco Largo, con respecto a la talla. Normal.
Tórax Perímetro torácico grande. Normal.
Pelvis Estrecha. Normal.
Columna vertebral Curvatura muy marcadas, especialmente la lumbar. Normal.
Músculos del tórax Muy desarrollados, especialmente los pectorales, los Normales.| Elementos somáticos | Raza Guayakí | Raza Amazónide (AVA) |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Nariz | | Mesorrina en mayor parte. |
| | Generalmente con marcada platirrinia. <br> Tiene forma de triángulo equilátero. <br> Nasión muy hundido. <br> El ángulo diedro formado por la sutura de los dos huesos nasales es muy obtuso. <br> Base trilobada muy acentuada en algunos individuos. Perfil muy cóncavo. | Nasión no hundido. Normal. |
| | | Perfil derecho o poco convexo. |
| | Narinas largas, vueltas con frecuencia hacia arriba. | Narinas medianas vueltas siempre hacia abajo. |
| Ojos | Ángulos internos de los ojos separados por una gran distancia a causa del achatamiento de los huesos nasales. | Ojos separados normalmente. |
| Boca | Labios medianamente gruesos, algunos con labios un poco levantados debido a un ligero prognatismo alveolar. | Plica mongólica siempre presente. |
| Orejas | Con lóbulo siempre "cecil" (unido a la cara). | "Cecil" o no "cecil". |
| Cuello | Grueso, por el gran desarrollo de los trapecios. | Normal. |
| Tronco | Largo, con respecto a la talla. | Normal. |
| Tórax | Perímetro torácico grande. | Normal. |
| Pelvis | Estrecha. | Normal. |
| Columna vertebral | Curvatura muy marcadas, especialmente la lumbar. | Normal. |
| Músculos del tórax | Muy desarrollados, especialmente los pectorales, los | Normales. |
trapezius and rectus abdominis. Small but prominent buttocks due to the strong lumbar saddle.
trapecios y los rectos del abdomen.
Glúteos pequeños pero prominentes por la fuerte ensilladura lumbar.| trapecios y los rectos del abdomen. |
| :--- |
| Glúteos pequeños pero prominentes por la fuerte ensilladura lumbar. |
They do not present these characters.
Thoracic limbs
Long (character that imposes itself at first sight), normal hands.
Normal.
Muscles
Greatly developed deltoids, triceps and biceps.
Normal development.
Abdominal limbs
Remarkably brachycephalic. Neck of femur, noticeably short. Calluses around the knee.
Notablemente braquiskelos.
Cuello del fémur, notablemente corto.
Callos alrededor de la rodilla.| Notablemente braquiskelos. |
| :--- |
| Cuello del fémur, notablemente corto. |
| Callos alrededor de la rodilla. |
Usually mesoskelos. Normal.
Foot
Large, in proportion to the limb. Triangular shaped sole. Little marked plantar arch.
Grandes, en proporción al miembro.
Planta de forma triangular. Arco plantar poco marcado.| Grandes, en proporción al miembro. |
| :--- |
| Planta de forma triangular. Arco plantar poco marcado. |
Normal.
Normal.
Normal.
Normal.| Normal. |
| :--- |
| Normal. |
Comparison between height and wingspan
Large wingspan greater than height. In 24 males: wingspan, 1,570. Height, 1.544 (Saguier N.)
La gran envergadura mayor que la estatura.
En 24 varones: envergadura 1.570.
Estatura, 1.544 (Saguier N.)| La gran envergadura mayor que la estatura. |
| :--- |
| En 24 varones: envergadura 1.570. |
| Estatura, 1.544 (Saguier N.) |
Large wingspan equal to height.
Ratio of members
The humerus + radius are remarkably long in proportion to the femur + tibia in both the skeleton collected by Ten Kate and the one unearthed by me.
Normal.
Radius-to-humeral ratio
The radius is very long, in proportion to the humerus.
Normal.
Blood
Absence of the 100%100 \% mongoloid antigen "Diego" in red blood cells (Saguier N.).
Presence of the mongoloid antigen "Diego" in red blood cells.
Elementos somáticos "Raza
Guayakí" "Raza
Amazónide (AVA)"
"trapecios y los rectos del abdomen.
Glúteos pequeños pero prominentes por la fuerte ensilladura lumbar." No presentan estos caracteres.
Miembros torácicos Largos (carácter que se impone a primera vista), manos normales. Normales.
Músculos Deltoides, triceps y biceps grandemente desarrollados. Desarrollo normal.
Miembros abdominales "Notablemente braquiskelos.
Cuello del fémur, notablemente corto.
Callos alrededor de la rodilla." Generalmente mesoskelos. Normal.
Pie "Grandes, en proporción al miembro.
Planta de forma triangular. Arco plantar poco marcado." "Normal.
Normal."
Comparación entre la estatura y la envergadura "La gran envergadura mayor que la estatura.
En 24 varones: envergadura 1.570.
Estatura, 1.544 (Saguier N.)" Gran envergadura igual a la estatura.
Proporción entre los miembros El húmero + el radio son notablemente largos en proporción al fémur + tibia tanto en el esqueleto recogido por Ten Kate como en el desenterrado por mí. Normal.
Proporción radio-humeral El radio es muy largo, en proporción al húmero. Normal.
Sangre Ausencia del 100% del antígeno mongoloide "Diego" en los glóbulos rojos (Saguier N.) Presencia del antígeno mongoloide "Diego" en los glóbulos rojos.| Elementos somáticos | Raza <br> Guayakí | Raza <br> Amazónide (AVA) |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| | trapecios y los rectos del abdomen. <br> Glúteos pequeños pero prominentes por la fuerte ensilladura lumbar. | No presentan estos caracteres. |
| Miembros torácicos | Largos (carácter que se impone a primera vista), manos normales. | Normales. |
| Músculos | Deltoides, triceps y biceps grandemente desarrollados. | Desarrollo normal. |
| Miembros abdominales | Notablemente braquiskelos. <br> Cuello del fémur, notablemente corto. <br> Callos alrededor de la rodilla. | Generalmente mesoskelos. Normal. |
| Pie | Grandes, en proporción al miembro. <br> Planta de forma triangular. Arco plantar poco marcado. | Normal. <br> Normal. |
| Comparación entre la estatura y la envergadura | La gran envergadura mayor que la estatura. <br> En 24 varones: envergadura 1.570. <br> Estatura, 1.544 (Saguier N.) | Gran envergadura igual a la estatura. |
| Proporción entre los miembros | El húmero + el radio son notablemente largos en proporción al fémur + tibia tanto en el esqueleto recogido por Ten Kate como en el desenterrado por mí. | Normal. |
| Proporción radio-humeral | El radio es muy largo, en proporción al húmero. | Normal. |
| Sangre | Ausencia del $100 \%$ del antígeno mongoloide "Diego" en los glóbulos rojos (Saguier N.) | Presencia del antígeno mongoloide "Diego" en los glóbulos rojos. |
The description of the "external" characters of the Indians we are dealing with is sufficiently broad to show that it is something new and different from what was seen before in the classifications of Imbelloni and Canals Frau; even the description is somewhat exaggerated in its details, but we have preferred to present it in its entirety to make it clear that we do not overemphasize the traits that interest us. The general features treated are only comparable with those of the Caucasoid Amurian race of Birdsell and its American derivatives. It even seems unquestionable that the color of their skin is much lighter than in the examples given by Birdsell for his Californian forms.
In our author, there follows a Part IV. Considerations on some somatic characters, of which we will only reproduce a few paragraphs, since we have already quoted him enough:
"Beard. In my previous work, on page 90 I say: 'Of the ten adult males, four have a beardless face, four have a few hairs; of two only two can be said to have a very sparse and hard beard limited around the mouth'. In reality the four Guayakis that I had indicated as beardless are, instead, bearded, as I was able to ascertain on my second trip. The mistake was due to the fact that Pereira had the habit of shaving his Guayakíes, a fact that I was unaware of at the time. Also among the members of the Ybyturuzú horde I observed other bearded individuals, such as the one in the photograph that appears in this article (Fig. 4).
"The presence of many bearded individuals among the Guayakí contrasts with the absence or scarcity of hair on the face of most of the American aboriginal races. [...]
"Eyes. The semilunar or mongolian plica which, as is known, is a retroverted upper eyelid, generally covers the lacrimal caruncle of the eyes of the Amerindians. In the Guayaki, on the other hand, the lacrimal caruncle is always visible due to the lack of the mongolian plica.
"This 'mongoloid plica' is also present in some African races. It represents a regressive character, because in Mongoloids, it is more visible in children than in adults. The preceding authors, who have studied only children, generalized that all Guayakis present the mongoloid plica. In conclusion: Guayakis have eyes as 'mongoloid' as any European.
"Another very noticeable racial character in the Guayakis is the large
distance existing between the internal angles of the eyes and that due to the flattening of the nasal bones. [...]
^(n){ }^{n} Skin. In this article I again state that the Guary constitute a sub-pigmented race (leucoderma)." (Ob. cit, the 149-150).
Further on, we find in our author other important references:
"IV. Pigmoid characters in the Guayaki.
"The Babinga of the Congo, the Andamans of the Homian islands, the Sakai of the Malay Peninsula, the Aeta of the Flipis and the Tapiros of New Guinea have in common with the Guas, ki, not only the short stature but also the following somatic characters: brachycephaly, large head in relation; trunk - Platirrinia - thoracic limbs remarkably long g _("1, ")_{\text {1, }} compare them with the abdominal ones. Trunk long in relation to kk abdominal limbs (brachycephaly). Very marked curvatures of the vertebral column. Very narrow pelvic girdle.
"Ethnologists and anthropologists agree, without exception, in considering these 'marginal' races living in geographic isolation as very ancient and pure.
"With the Guayakis, the ring of pigmoid-faced races living around the planet closes.
"I limit myself to the statement of facts without investigating the reasons why similar somatic characters exist in different, isolated rads, in different environments such as islands, deserts, hills and especially tropical rainforests.
"Conclusion. The Guayakis are pure, sub-pigmented (les codermos) and pigmoid. They, by the facts mentioned above, and which are published for the first time, cannot be classified in any of the other indigenous races of America. For the sake of clarity, it would be appropriate to classify the Guayakies in a separate race' (Ob. cit., pp. 151-152).
From Part Two of this monograph, signed by Dr. Emilio Saguier Negrete, we will quote only the main paragraphs:
"I traveled twice to Arroyo Morotí, the first time from June 2 ? to July 1, 1964 and the second time from September 17 to 19, 1965. On the first trip - which I made alone - I saw seventy aborigines (Guayakíes), while on the second, made in the company of Doctors Miraglia and Juste, I saw only twenty-five.
distance existing between the internal angles of the eyes and which is due to the flattening of the nasal bones. [...]
"Skin. In this article I again state that the Guayakies constitute an under-pigmented race (leucoderma)." (Ob. cit., pp. 149-150).
Further on, we find in our author other important references:
"IV. Pigmoid characters in the Guayaki.
"The Babinga of the Congo, the Andamans of the homonymous islands, the Sakai of the Malay Peninsula, the Aeta of the Philippines and the Tapiros of New Guinea have in common with the Guayakis, not only short stature but also the following somatic characters: brachycephaly, large head in relation to the trunk-Platirrinia-remarkably long thoracic limbs if compared with the abdominal limbs. Long trunk in relation to the abdominal limbs (brachycephaly). Very marked curvatures of the spine. Very narrow pelvic girdle.
"Ethnologists and anthropologists agree, without exception, in considering these 'marginal' races living in geographic isolation as very ancient and pure.
"With the Guayakis, the ring of races with pygmoid characters living around the planet closes.
"I limit myself to the exposition of the facts without investigating the causes for which similar somatic characters exist in different races, isolated, in different environments such as islands, deserts, hills and especially tropical jungles.
"Conclusion. The Guayakí are pure, sub-pigmented (leucoderms) and pigmoid. They, by the facts mentioned above, and which for the first time are published, cannot be classified in any of the other indigenous races of America. For greater clarity, it would be opportune, to classify the Guayakíes in a separate race." (Ob. cit., pp. 151-152).
From Part Two of this monograph, signed by Dr. Emilio Saguier Negrete, we will quote only the main paragraphs:
"In these two expeditions I have been able to extract seventy blood samples which is the maximum that can currently be obtained and represents almost 100%100 \% of the 'reduced' Guayaki available for a study.
"It is striking that the mongoloid antigen 'Diego' is 100% absent in the Guayakí and that it appears in a variable proportion - around 20%20 \% - in the blood of the Guaraní around them. The 100%100 \% blood group of the Guayakí studied is ZERO (0) and the Rhesus factor (with anti-D serum) is positive in all cases.
"According to Junqueira's investigations the Kaingangs of the state of Parana have the highest index of the 'Diego' antigen: 45%. Also several tribes of the Pampide race, living in the Paraguayan Chaco, as I have studied and published present the 'Diego' antigen in variable proportion. The Angaité at 30%30 \% , the Tobas at 27%, the Sanapanas and Lenguas at 18% and the Guaná at 17%17 \% .
"After the two expeditions to Arroyo Morotí I can consider that the natives of Paraguay - until today studied immunologically - are of Mongoloid origin for having in their blood the DIEGO antigen in variable proportion. There is only one exception: THE GUAYAKÍES." (Ob. cit., pp. 155-156).
"To take advantage of this favorable opportunity I took with me - in addition to the material to draw blood samples - an anthropometer to measure height and wingspan.
"Having arrived at the destination, I was able to measure a group of 24 adult males and 18 adult females. "Here are the results:
Group of 24 men
Height
Size
Average, in millimeters
1544
Average, in millimeters
1570
Maximum, in millimeters
1625
Maximum, in millimeters
1650
Minimum, in millimeters
1475
Minimum, in millimeters
1500
Estatura Envergadura
Media, en milímetros 1544 Media, en milímetros 1570
Máxima, en milímetros 1625 Máxima, en milímetros 1650
Mínima, en milímetros 1475 Mínima, en milimetros 1500| Estatura | Envergadura | | |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Media, en milímetros | 1544 | Media, en milímetros | 1570 |
| Máxima, en milímetros | 1625 | Máxima, en milímetros | 1650 |
| Mínima, en milímetros | 1475 | Mínima, en milimetros | 1500 |
Group of 18 women
Mean, in millimeters 1447 Maximum, in millimeters 1515 Minimum, in millimeters 1370
Average, in millimeters Maximum, in millimeters Minimum, in millimeters
1361
1540
1370
(Ob. cit., pp. 155-158).
Some brief comments. The affirmation and conclusion of the first author of the present monograph, about this population being pygmoid, we believe that it would not be accepted by most of the investigators, especially when there are individuals that reach a height of 1625 millimeters. This is much more than what is usually accepted for pygmies and also exceeds that considered as pygmoid.
But the second author presents us, following the above, a table with the individual measurements of the men and women measured, which we have not considered necessary to reproduce; there, for the two males that exceed the height of 1600 millimeters, we find that the large wingspan (maximum distance with open arms) is smaller than the height, that is, they could be considered mestizos, although it would be necessary to know better their other characteristics. Specifically, the details are:
Number 8, height 1610 mm., wingspan 1590.
Number 17, height 1625 mm., wingspan 1550.
Here we see clearly the alteration that derives from the average measurements, against the same interests of the author. In the summary that we have seen before, the maximum in males appears with maximum height 1625, maximum wingspan 1650, however, that maximum wingspan corresponds to an Indian with a height of 1550 mm.
With the females the same thing happens partially; of four females who exceed 1500 mm. in height, we have the following: number 1, height 1515, wingspan 1540; number 2, height 1510, wingspan 1535; number 4, height 1505, wingspan 1500; number 5, height 1500, wingspan 1490, that is, in the two tallest, the wingspan exceeds the height, but in the next two the opposite is true.
It would be necessary to have a better individual description of the six cases cited, to see if they are mestizos, but with respect to the smaller individuals, in all cases the wingspan exceeds this one.
Neither of the two authors we are dealing with makes the slightest reference to Birdsell and his monograph, nor does he compare for
The illustrations presented by the former and those of other authors on the same group of Indians show a clear relationship with the Californian Indians we have seen before, both in their racial characteristics and in the primitivism of their culture.
In short, they are Amurians, Ainos, of primitive Caucasoid race.
3. Other bearded individuals in South America: the carpenters.
The Guayaquíes seem to be the primitive concentrated population that presents in almost all of its individuals the physical characteristics that we are dealing with, which are of Caucasoid-Amurian, of the Aino type, that is, very primitive forms of the white race, even neanderthaloid, according to our interpretation. We would thus have two residual places in America, where the same traits are present in abundance: Southern and Central California, and also the eastern interior of Paraguay.
In other parts of America - and especially in South America - the same human type is present in relative abundance or exceptionally, with characteristics immediately related to what has been treated. They are individuals or small minorities that appear in populations whose human type or types are basically different and that can be direct survival of the ancient forms, or, Mendelian, atavistic reconstructions, that reappear by genetic recombination that was in a recessive state.
We say again, but this archaic Caucasoid human type is not the only primitive bearded type that appears in South America. If we take a closer look, in this way of discriminating the South American indigenous types, another racial form appears which is very similar to another of the Australian types presented: the carpentary. Sometimes it seems to be a mixed form with carpentary-Murrayan features, but it is usually clearly defined. Its Caucasoid features are also
The archaic races are undoubtedly archaic, although Birdsell tells us that the carpenters form a fourth basic human racial type, but he also says that they would be a derived and specialized form of the Caucasoid race. Let us remember here an important feature of Birdsell's classification, which separates the carpenters from the Murrayans: the former are very dark in color.
We already know the American carpenters, in the classification of Canals Frau. They appear quite clearly in their huárpida race, postulated by this author as having an abundant beard. This fact, for the Argentine territory, is presented with abundant historical news referring especially to the province of Cordoba, in which the chroniclers of the conquest constantly allude to the fact that the local natives were bearded: "with beards like us" says more than one chronicler. Canals Frau adds: "The huárpido type has, in addition, the merit of being one of the American racial types that in a more pristine way have preserved the Australoid characters of the most primitive immigrants." (Prehistory of America, pp. 295-296).
Canals Frau's description of his huarpids does not fit well with the Australoid Murrayan race, which we have been seeing. His comparison with the "australians" is general, that is, he considers the australians as forming a single race, which, as we have seen, is manifestly wrong. In reality, according to his description, the relationship is established directly with the Carpentary type, according to all that we can see, in spite of the fact that Birdsell has done his best to eliminate this human type from the native population of America. In fact, Canals Frau assigns to his huárpidos the following characteristics: tall stature, leptosoma complexion, long face, dolicoidism, tall head, strong pilosity, and dark skin color. None of these characteristics, except pilosity, is typical of the murrayans, but of the carpenters. In Canals Frau's classification, those who would be more murrayan are his califormids, whom he considers proto-mongoloids. It happens that his illustration 71, -where this racial type is shown in a yuk indian- shows well the murrayan racial type.
Now, in addition, we find another very distinctive characteristic, which Birdsell presents as characteristic of the carpenters and not of the Murrayans. The latter have early baldness, 154
carpenters do not have total baldness, although sometimes the forehead recedes considerably. In the individuals we are dealing with now, the same thing happens: the total baldness, initiated in the "friar's tonsure", is missing.
The laguids of Canals Frau and Imbelloni, according to their descriptions, do not have beards, but because of their high skull, great bizygomatic width, etc., they would have to be carpenters mixed with mongoloids, with dominance of the external mongoloid traits, which made them lose their beards. In general, they are quite short, but we do not want to continue dealing with internal traits, so we suppress analyzing them in greater detail.
In the present population of Mendoza, the descendants of the historical huarpes frequently present the type described by Canals Frau. To demonstrate it, we present some illustrations.
Canals Frau also refers to several ceramics of the ancient culture of La Candelaria, of Salta and northern Tucumán, which he considers to belong to the disappeared tribe of the Lules, which present in modeled form individuals with abundant beards. Here we do not consider the case as demonstrated, because evidently, we are dealing with a people of high culture, with knowledge of a developed agriculture, of metals, etc., in which those bearded men would have to be rather of oceanic origin, which would be demonstrated by the constant presence of a great nose.
Canals Frau also places in his Huarpid race the Uruchipayas of the Bolivian Altiplano, whom we know personally well (we are the discoverers of the only group of Urus, about 500 people, that exists today, although they have lost their language). We have not yet published anything about them. They do not have beards, but their individuals have both carpentary and murrayan features, both dominated by external mongoloid features.
As huárpidos, Canals Frau also presents the sirionós of the jungles of Bolivia, of which he says the following:
"... It is, above all, the region of the Rio Grande, in the Bolivian Oriente, where the Sirionós and the Quruñguás live. Both peoples speak today Guarani language; but there is no doubt that this is a recent acquisition, imposed in a certain way by their neighbors, the Chiriguanos. The Sirionós and Quruñguás are peoples of great
HUÁRPIDA WOMAN, FROM MENDOZA, according to Carlos Rusconi: Etnograffa, 1961. Of name Pascuala Nievas, front and profile. She lived in the locality of Bal de la Vaca, Lagunas del Rosario; photographed in 1937. Her carpentary features are clear in the height of her head, great width of the cheekbones, strong subnasal space and relatively narrow nose at its base, contrary to the Amurians, who have a very wide nose; also the chin is slightly protruding. The hair is obviously straight. The eyes are slightly oblique and the canuncula are visible.
stature, dolicoides, hipsicráneos, of leptosoma complexion, of strong pilosidad and dark tone of the skin. Until recently they were able to keep away from the influences of the whites. But now their time has also come, and they will soon succumb." (Prehistory of America, pp. 297-298).
We personally know seven or eight Sirionós and we have several works and abundant photographs of them. There are several groups, geographically separated. The ones we know are from the northern, already jungle zone of Cochabamba; four of them were small, light-colored creatures, obviously crossed with mongoloids; one siriono skull we obtained was neither carpentary nor murrayan, but apparently mongoloid. Of the adults we saw, none was of tall stature, but of medium or little more; neither were they dolicoid, but meso- or subrachycephalic.
amurian man, from mendoza. According to Carlos Rusconi: Poblaclones Pre y Posthispánicas, etc., photos 101 and 102. The author says: "Claudio Brunas, 88 years old, Chilean and settled in Uspallata since 1888^('')1888^{\prime \prime} . Men of the Amurian race are much more easily distinguished when they are older, and here their features are clear in both photographs.
WOMAN OF AMURIAN TYPE, FROM MENDOZA. According to Carlos Rusconi: Poblaclones Pre y Posthispánicas, etc., photo 129. The author says "Liberata Avila, mestiza Pehuenche, 69 years old and based in Chilecito, San Carlos, Mendoza. Photo and exc. C. Rusconi. Oct. 17-19 of 1944". The features presented by this woman are Amurian, as seen by her broad nose and non-Mongolian eyes, although the straight hair shows an outward Mongolian influence.
We saw an adult male who had been captured as a child, that is, he had been "wild" according to the local expression. He was of medium height and very dark in color and lacked a beard, for the simple reason that he shaved but, as it was visible, it largely covered his cheeks. His type was leptosoma, since he had rather long legs, that is to say, he would be carpentary.
At that time we did not obtain photographs of these natives, but we have others published, from which we give their
Present-day Chaqueño Indian. Old Indian of the Chulupí tribe, from Puerto Moreno (Paraguayan Chaco). According to O. Paulotti and A. Dembo: Materiales para servir a la somatología de los indigenas chaquenses, 1949. It presents strong features huárpidos, that is to say, carpentary, as it is seen by its high head, strong cheekbones yy abundant beard, etc.
references in the illustrations. We clarify here that the bearded individuals are but a minority among the Sirionós, forming known families among them, which are distinguished by such a character. Their human type can be clearly seen in the photographs: they are individuals of good Australian appearance, with long legs, large head, manifestly wavy hair and somewhat dark brown hair in the individuals we saw, even somewhat light in the children; their hairiness in the beard and moustache is abundant, as can be seen. The musculature is manifestly strong, the nose broad at the bottom, with the nasion not very sunken. The head is tall, no doubt.
The culture of these peoples is that of jungle gatherers, although some carry out small plantations, especially tobacco. Their bows are enormous -up to two and a half meters long- and their arrows, like spears. This large size of the bows, which are cylindrical in section, does not signify development but primitivism; the arrows are described as relatively slow, they are seen coming and can be dodged. The Yuracaré, their neighbors, use flat and small bows; the arrows arrive like a bullet, without being seen, due to their speed.
indigenous SIRIONÓ OF BOLIVIA. According to Stig Ryden: A Study of the Siriono Indians, fig. 4. His human type is clearly similar to that of the Guayaquies of Paraguay, as seen by the frontal entrances and by his abundant beard and moustache. Their archaic Caucasoid physiognomy cannot be disputed.
SYRIANO FEMALE OF TYPE F-2. Primitive Mongoloid. Photo Wagner. This type appears with some frequency in the Sinionó tribe and seems to represent an older, pygmoid American race. Other females of this tribe correspond well with their common males.
There are several other South American indigenous groups in which there are similar characteristics to those treated, both Murrayan and Carpathian, but as far as we know, they are only minorities among groups, where the external Mongoloid influence has made the external characteristic of the beard disappear; however, the appearance of their face shows them undoubtedly as primitive Caucasoids, both of the one and the other race mentioned.
The same thing happens throughout the Andean zone, that is to say, the appearance of this type of individuals, who sometimes become quite numerous in number, but since there - because of the four centuries of mestization with the European whites, it can be postulated that they have mixed with them - we prefer to treat lightly the regions where there is a greater possibility that they have conserved their racial characteristics.
First of all, we will refer to the southern part of Brazil, where the Kaingang linguistic family is found, which was previously considered to be united with the Gê family of the Brazilian highlands, but which has more recently been separated completely, and justifiably so. Both Imbelloni and Canals Frau consider the natives who speak these Kaingang languages as belonging to their own race, but according to the illustrations of individuals of these tribes, which we know from photographs, this does not seem to be the case. In part, they are rather short, leggy individuals.
AMERICAN AUSTRALOID TYPE. Man of the Sirionó tribe from the forests of Bolivia, whose australoid aspect is evident, while he has an abundant beard and mustache. Photo Gerstmann and Wegener.
short, somewhat wavy hair, short face, broad nose, straight eyes with no Mongolian crease but with a European-type marginal crease, somewhat receding chin, abundant moustache and beard, which completely covers the cheeks. The head appears to be rather low. In other words, his racial type is Amurian, like that of the Guayakis.
It is possible that the racial type of these Indians presents, in more than one of their numerous tribes, a racial predominance of that human form - as occurs among the Guayakí - but we lack sufficient material to better examine the problem. In any case, it is evident that the Amurian type of the Guayakis is much more widespread in the area than it seems at first.
In numerous other groups in Amazonia, the Guianas and the Orinoco, similar cases are found, both of amu-
ARCHAIC CAUCASOID, IN AMERICA. Indian of the Painguá tribe, of the Kaingang linguistic group, named Raimundo Rosa, in the South of Brazil. Front and profile. No possible trace of being considered mongoloid appears in him, as can be seen by the abundance of the beard and mustache, shape of the nose, etc. The eyes, straight, have precisely the opposite fold to the so-called "mongoloid", as it is external and does not cover the inner side of the eye at all, where the canuncula is clearly seen. According to Manuel Pereira de Godói, Los extinguidos Painguá de la cascada de Emas (State of São Paulo - Brazil). Cordoba, 1946.
We have seen from photographs, but we also lack materials to extend our study.
We will now refer to a special group of Indians from southern Venezuela and neighboring Brazil: the Guaicas or Waikas, a tribe of primitive culture, comparable to the Sirionós and Guayakíes, i.e., jungle gatherers equipped with the large bows and arrows mentioned above. These Indians have been studied a lot lately, by several scientific expeditions, but most of these works have not reached our hands. We do, however, have abundant photographs, although we lack good descriptions of their physical characteristics.
The Guaicas are also called Guajaribo, Shirianá, etc. In a small work about them, signed by Otto Zerries: The Guaika Indians and their cultural situation, the author - Chief of the Frobenius Expedition to the Alto Orinoco - gives us a preliminary report on the culture of this people, makes comparisons with other primitive South American groups and includes valuable photographs. He reports that the Guaicas visited by the expedition cultivate bananas and tubers and pijiguao palms, which would be their oldest crop, but that at their base, they are gatherers. They practice endocannibalism, as do several other primitive peoples of the South American jungle zone. It consists of burning and grinding the bones of their dead, and drinking them with chicha. It is curious, but the same custom appears in Japan, where the same thing is done with the bones of the heroes killed in war: they are taken in the same way by the gueishas. They suck the tobacco, not smoke it, putting a rolled leaf on the front of the lower lip, against the teeth.
The physical details provided by Otto Zerries, our friend, are sparse and limited to the following:
"Another ancient custom of the Guaika is the tonsure which was formerly widespread in South America. Contrary to the general practice of depilation observed among the more civilized South American tribes, the Guaika do not depilate.
"I consider it of fundamental importance to report that the physical type of the Guaika is close in part of its population to that of the most primitive peoples of the Old World, such as the Pygmies of AFRICA and the Veda of Ceylon, among others. I should add that the
The average height of the men slightly exceeds 150 centimeters -meter and a half-, the limit below which pygmy peoples are classified; and the average height of the women slightly exceeds 140 centimeters. However, the Guaika do not present a marked uniformity in their physical appearance throughout their population, since a diversity of types has been observed, which could correspond to the complexity of their culture, which we have just described (Zerries, O., Ob. cit., p. 19).
The description is too brief to draw any valid conclusions, but the stature described coincides with that of the Guayaquíes of Paraguay. The illustrations we have do not show bearded men, however, the author clearly informs us that they do not depilate.
In another small monograph, signed by Hans Becher and
GROUP OF GUAICA INDIANS, IN FRONT OF A HUT. From a German publication whose file we have lost. The tonsure of the head stands out clearly in all the individuals, in a form that imitates an old baldness lost, by the Mongolian mixture.
h MAN AND WOMAN OF THE GUAICA TRIBE, according to Otto Zerries, plate III. The author tells us: "The photo shows on the right an old Guaika, of primitive coarse type and on the left a Guaika Indian woman showing finer mongoloid features (Photo "Frobex Ven"). It is the same as we say in the text. The men have Amurian features similar to those of the Guayaqules, while the women show Mongoloid features, finer but also primitive.
entitled A research trip on the Demini and Araca rivers (Brazil), is about two small related tribes, the Pakidai and the Surara, from a region further west than the previous ones. These tribes pay food tribute to a stronger and obviously better organized Shirian tribe (Xiriána, writes the author). They have the same customs as the Guaica.
The author is especially dedicated to give us a cultural description of what he saw and even drank banana soup mixed with ground bones of the deceased, for which he was considered as belonging to the Surara people. It is a good example of how a good ethnographic researcher should act in order to open the doors of the people he wishes to study.
We said that he gives us an ethnographic description, not a physical one, of these peoples, but he gives a few physical reports, extremely valuable, as we shall see shortly:
"The Surára and the Pakidái are of small stature: the men, 1,501,601,501,60 meters; the women, 1,40-1,501,40-1,50 meters, but well pro-.
and are distinguished by a relatively light skin color. The speech and culture of both tribes are the same." (Ob. cit, p. 154).
"Typical for both sexes are short hair, as well as a tonsure, which even the youngest children are provided with. All women and older girls wear a dotted tattoo that goes above the upper lip and on both sides of the mouth downwards; this tattoo is done to young girls during the first menstruation. Men and women wear pierced earlobes; both sexes also have a piercing in the central part below the lower lip, and women, in addition, on both sides of the mouth." (Idem, p. 155).
Valuable data, we said. The stature is the same as discussed above, but the most important report is that of a relatively light skin color, which would correspond to the Guayakis.
The tonsure, which was also mentioned for the Guaicases, is important, because for us, and as seen in the illustrations we have, it completely imitates a disappeared form of baldness, which would have the prestige of being proper of the old men. The tattooing shown by the women immediately reminds us of the custom of the Aino women, who tattoo a moustache and beard, to imitate their hairy husbands. The piercing used by the women, on both sides of the mouth, corresponds to one of the oldest oceanic influences in America, since it appears among the Olmecs of Mexico and, in South America, it reaches the Condorhuasi culture in NW Argentina.
We present photographs of individuals of this people. In them, the men have a coarse Caucasoid appearance, with slanted eyes but without any Mongoloid folds, the noses are very wide at the bottom and clearly trilobed, like those of the Guayakis, the hair seems smooth but fine; the existence of strong supraorbital features is even extremely marked in the photograph of a young woman. The photos of several women, which we have, show a more Mongoloid physiognomy, of a very primitive Mongoloid type, such as that which appears in some regions of the interior of Indochina; the eyes are very slanted but the Mongoloid fold is so weak that it does not cover the caruncle.
Otto Zerries informs us that, among the Guaicas, a diversity of physical types have been found, but we do not possess enough material to properly study the subject. However, as
YOUNG WOMAN OF THE SURARA TRIBE, according to Hans Becher, fig. 1. The Surara belong to the Shiriana group. The type of woman depicted here is manifestly primitive Mongoloid, although she presents strong Amurian features, as seen in the strong distance between the eyes, which have no Mongoloid crease yy in the remarkable protrusion of the supraorbital arches, which even form a continuous whole over the base of the forehead. The nostrils are trilobed. See the tattooed dots representing a mustache, as in aino women.
American Indians, with predominantly Amurian features. Katio tribe, from the Chocó linguistic group of Colombia, neighboring Panama. According to Leonel Estrada, Nuevo aporte al estudio odontológico de los indios Katio, 1960. A slight Mongolian admixture has made them lose their beard and mustache, but their facial features are Amurian. In the two men and the woman (who looks more Mongoloid), the deeply receding chin is noticeable. The men's hair, as can be seen, is slightly wavy and their nasal cavity is very deep.
In our basic interpretation, it seems to us quite evident that the racial group that appears in the various Shirian tribes (that is the linguistic name most commonly used for this human group) presents an unquestionable mixture of at least two basic elements: an Amurian, Ainoid human type - quite clearly detectable in most of the photographs of male individuals - and a very primitive Mongoloid form, mostly represented in the illustrations of the women. In this mixture, which produced a very marked sexual diformism, the mongoloid element would have caused the disappearance of the beard and general body hairiness in the men.
The problem now lies in knowing what is the origin of this primitive mongoloid element. It occurs to us, in the first place, that it might have something to do with some primitive pygmoid form, not yet discriminated, with primitive mongoloid features. So far we have always tried to identify pygmoid traits as exclusively related to negroid forms, but for the moment we do not possess sufficient material to pursue the problem further.
4. Aino women and American Indians
The reference to sexual dysmorphism among the Shiriana Indians brings us face to face with a very important racial problem that has never been dealt with, as far as we know. This problem has resonances all over the world, not only in indigenous America, and it is, to put it in very simple words, that in some populations women present a different racial physical appearance than men.
This occurs in Europe itself, where, to begin with, we have the so-called Dinaric or Adriatic race, of tall stature and brachycephalic head; then the Alpine race, of short stature and equally brachycephalic head; both with dark hair and brown skin. They are too well known for us to deal with their other details.
With women of the Dinaric race the following tends to occur: in some places they have the tall stature and corresponding features of their males; in others, the females exhibit a
short stature, short legs and other characteristics, clearly corresponding to the alpine race. It is a remarkable sexual differentiation that has been interpreted to mean that Dinaric conquerors exterminated the men of Alpine populations, but kept their women and had offspring with them. As a result of this mixture and, due to unknown hereditary facts, such sexual differentiation was produced.
Something similar appears in the peoples of the Nordic race, where with some frequency there are women whose physical structure is clearly Mediterranean in their bony forms and features, while their external appearance is usually Nordic; we met a young Lithuanian woman, who was a prototype of this. Some Mediterranean colonizing population must have arrived in the prehistory of the early Bronze Age in the Nordic regions - later dominated by the Norse - and a similar sexual differentiation took place there.
In America, the same is true in several regions. Imbelloni emphasizes especially that, among the Pampidae, females and males have great physical similarity, while among their similar North American planarids, sexual diformism is very strong and the females generally present a much more fragile physical appearance than the males. He explains the case with an interpretation similar to that expressed for the Dinarians and their alpine-type women: a previous population was exterminated and their women, with a more fragile structure, were integrated into their people by the great planarid hunters.
We believe that the same thing must have happened on many other occasions, although we know nothing about the mechanism of heredity involved in the functioning of this sexual differentiation.
It happens now that this has intervened in the formation of the American Indian populations to a much greater degree than might be supposed at first sight; this, when one realizes it, is of great importance in understanding the origin of the Indian races. We are reminded of another similar fact: Captain Cook, in his travels in Polynesia, expressed more than once that the Polynesian men were, to the eye, much finer and more physically pleasing than their often coarse women. We remember the illustrations and we agree with him. In Polynesia there are
a sexual differentiation similar to that of the Dinarics: there are women with fine features, corresponding to those of the dominant males, and others extremely coarse.
We return to South America. In the many thousands of Indians we have seen and met in our studies and travels, we have seen Indian women of all kinds; some, indeed, real beauties, but that has not been the most frequent. In most cases - as happened to Captain Cook - we found that the women, in their physical features, were manifestly inferior to the men; quite simply, they were very coarse and only truly pleasing in their youthful stage. When they reached about thirty years of age, they became unpleasant old women. This happens not only in today's primitive populations, but also -and perhaps more especially- in the native populations that have long been cultured and assimilated, that is to say, that no longer speak their original languages but Spanish. What in the interior of Argentina is sometimes called "criolla pura", an old woman, represents this human type; the same is true of the indigenous people we know in Bolivia, who have preserved their language, whether they are Quichua or Aymara. Naturally, Mongoloid elements are also abundant among them, but we repeat that the number of women who present physical traits (internal) of the Amurian type is much greater than that of men, and this has not yet been studied.
We know of a work by George Montandon, a French anthropologist, now deceased, who studied especially the Ainou of Northern Japan and published an extensive work on them in L'Anthropologie (1927), entitled Ainou, Japonais, Bouriates. There, at the end, there are 48 plates or plates with photographs of individuals of that people, men and women; the men present us with the types already known and treated by Birdsell, whose illustrations we reproduce.
For the comparison with America, we reproduce a part of these illustrations, since we cannot do it with all of them; they are in front and in profile and can be seen well. The general aspect is the one that appears to the imagination and to the common knowledge, as the most typical of the indigenous women, and more than one can be directly compared with the physiognomy of the Guayakí woman in Luigi Miraglia's photograph. On the other hand, if for example we
OLD INDIGENOUS WOMAN FROM THE NO. DE MEXICO, of the Mayo tribe, San Ignacio, Sonora. Her face is clearly carpentary, as can be seen by her very high head and prominent cheekbones, etc., while there is nothing Mongolian in her eyes. Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales, Etnografía de México, p. 156. Work written by Dr. L. Mendieta y Núñez.
hen we look at the women in the Shiriana illustrations of Hans Becher and Otto Zerries, we must recognize that they do not show us the common image that we can form of what indigenous women are.
Figures 133 and 134 of Montandon, in which an Aina woman appears frontally and in profile, seventy years old, remind us not only of more than one old Indian woman we have known, but also of the well-known illustrations of the last Tasmanian woman -of Murrayan race for Birdsell- called Lalla Rock. Remarkable in her is the runaway chin, a subject of which we have not spoken so far, but which constitutes a character to be added to those typical of the American Neanderthaloid-Amurian. This
The absence of the chin, or its very loose form, appears very often among the Indians, without, to our knowledge, having attracted any attention so far. Naturally, in American Amurian individuals a well-developed chin is abundantly present, due to later Mongoloid admixtures, but here we must also clarify that, in those we consider as primitive Mongoloids, this fleeing form of the chin is frequent, both in American primitive Mongoloids as well as in Asiatic ones. Moreover, it is a well-known Neanderthaloid trait.
Of course, among the indigenous women there are other highly developed women, of various human types, whose beauty can satisfy the most demanding individuals; this occurs both in some more or less primitive present-day peoples and in the descendants of the high cultures. In this regard it should also be clarified that, naturally, they were preferred by the conquerors, so that there was a rapid absorption. This happened when there were no events like the one in Puno, where the Spanish conquistador chief ordered all the beautiful indigenous women to be hanged, so that there would be no fights among his soldiers. We do not believe it necessary to comment something, because the event itself is commented alone.
Returning briefly to the illustrations of Aino women that we present, it is evident that among them there are some very satisfactory ones. We say this sincerely, for we do not wish to denigrate them, but what matters to us is their general and undoubted resemblance to American Indians and the fact, which we consider indubitable, that they appear to us much more typically American Indian than those with dominant Mongoloid features. We refer to the proof of the illustrations, and leave individual comments for the text of the illustrations.
It is evident that the Amurian population in America was much more widespread than is shown by its two small remnants in Southern California and eastern Paraguay. Its culture of origin remains to be established. For us, it would have to be a primitive Mousterian from the beginning of the middle Paleolithic; the entrance through Bering would have to have taken place in the period immediately before the last glacial,' which leads us to a date between 50,000 and 50,000 years ago.
AINOS WOMEN, According to G. Montandon, in Aïnou, Japonais, Bouriates, figs. 90,91,12590,91,125 and 133. Women of 35, 45, 65 and 70 years, respectively. All these types of women are found among the American Indians, as is easy to see. The second of these has some Mongoloid blood and her type is more common among the Patagonians. The last has an extraordinarily receding chin. The traits of this human type or types, by preponderating among American Indian women, show well the very abundant existence of this substratum in America. Never would a group of Japanese or Chinese women present such a Native American appearance.
and 70,000 years ago, a time when, naturally, the Mongoloid race would not be developed, even more so if we accept (which, personally, we do not) Birdsell's interpretation that the Mongoloid origin is produced during the last glacial advance and through a geographic isolation, in Siberia, of an Amurian group.
For us, the first origin of the Mongoloids would have to be much older; the postulated origin in the Amurians does not convince us. But the problem is more complex than it seems at first sight, because here the first thing we should ask ourselves is what is a mongoloid? We confess that we do not know. We recognize the existence of a number of "Mongoloid" physical features, starting with thick, straight, cylindrical hair, but that feature occurs with great frequency in individuals whose other facial features have none of what is recognized as being characteristic of the Mongoloid race. And so it is with the other features.
The so-called "Mongolian fold", which is so often arbitrarily confused with slanting eyes, simply does not exist in perhaps half of those considered to be Asian Mongoloids. It appears predominantly in Siberia, North and Central China, Korea, Japan, etc., but in South China it is already scarce (South China is populated by peoples of non-Chinese origin, but chinized by the Chinese conquest, which took place a few centuries before Christ) and almost disappears in Indochina and Indonesia. In America, it is relatively scarce, a real minority; but there are other types of folds that have given rise to the supposition of the existence of an "Indian fold", the nature of which is not well clarified and which, naturally, is also another minority.
In contrast, there is another kind of fold - very rarely cited by anthropologists - which is sometimes called the malomarginalis fold. It extends from the upper external part of the eye, at least up to its middle part and sometimes up to near the nose, without affecting the caruncle, naturally. This fold is common throughout Europe, in old individuals (personally we have it, quite strong), but it is very scarce in the regions towards the Mediterranean. On the other hand, it is abundant in Siberia and common in many American regions. It is also present in many old blacks. Perhaps that is why it has been little
and 70,000 years ago, a time when, naturally, the Mongoloid race would not be developed, even more so if we accept (which, personally, we do not) Birdsell's interpretation that the Mongoloid origin is produced during the last glacial advance and through a geographic isolation, in Siberia, of an Amurian group.
For us, the first origin of the Mongoloids would have to be much older; the postulated origin in the Amurians does not convince us. But the problem is more complex than it seems at first sight, because here the first thing we should ask ourselves is what is a mongoloid? We confess that we do not know. We recognize the existence of a number of "Mongoloid" physical features, starting with thick, straight, cylindrical hair, but that feature occurs with great frequency in individuals whose other facial features have none of what is recognized as being characteristic of the Mongoloid race. And so it is with the other features.
The so-called "Mongolian fold", which is so often arbitrarily confused with slanting eyes, simply does not exist in perhaps half of those considered to be Asian Mongoloids. It appears predominantly in Siberia, North and Central China, Korea, Japan, etc., but in South China it is already scarce (South China is populated by peoples of non-Chinese origin, but chinized by the Chinese conquest, which took place a few centuries before Christ) and almost disappears in Indochina and Indonesia. In America, it is relatively scarce, a real minority; but there are other types of folds that have given rise to the supposition of the existence of an "Indian fold", the nature of which is not well clarified and which, naturally, is also another minority.
In contrast, there is another kind of fold - very rarely cited by anthropologists - which is sometimes called the malomarginalis fold. It extends from the upper external part of the eye, at least up to its middle part and sometimes up to near the nose, without affecting the caruncle, naturally. This fold is common throughout Europe, in old individuals (personally we have it, quite strong), but it is very scarce in the regions towards the Mediterranean. On the other hand, it is abundant in Siberia and common in many American regions. It is also present in many old blacks. Perhaps that is why it has been little
The "Mongolian fold", which is internal (next to the nose) and covers the caruncle, is not considered a characteristic of any race, but is sometimes confused with the "Mongolian fold".
This is the case with the other traits considered Mongolian, none of which is truly representative of what we consider to be the supposed race. For us, what is considered as "Mongolian" is a set of traits that, not too often, appear together, both in America and in Asia.
One of these traits, undoubtedly important, is the absence of beard, mustache and the general scarcity of hair on the body, but this trait is also present - and in the same form - among those considered black. This trait has the important characteristic of being dominant in inheritance, especially when it accumulates in several generations yy , therefore, it has been dominant in pre-Columbian America, but it is an isolated trait that does not affect the other physical traits, especially the internal ones, that is to say, especially, the bony traits.
Undoubtedly, this trait has little effect on women, at least in its most abundant visible features in American women of the Amurian racial type and in other Caucasoid women, even carpenters, as seen in some Australian women of that race.
The first or the first of these Mongoloid traits to enter - through Bering, naturally - was at a time well after the arrival of the Amurians; personally we suppose that it arrived with the large human types, such as the planarids and pampids. With regard to his physical appearance, let us recall that Menghin points out that he is a "paleo-Europoid model", in effect, genetically related to the Myolithic man of Western Europe. He came to America most probably without, or only with a minimum of Mongoloid admixture, for at the time of his transfer to America there would have been no yellows in Siberia." (Menghin, pp. 118-119).
By "miolitic man", Menghin refers to the Cro-Magnon race, classically "white" according to all authors, but with respect to which all reconstructions of their physiognomy that we know of show a kind of red skin, without
beard, rather than a bearded Caucasoid, as would logically correspond.
These American Indians of large size and strong physical complexion seem to us to be the first who have most characteristically introduced in America the trait considered mongoloid of cylindrical, black, thick and straight hair; this is observed in the planarids, sonorids and pampids (as well as in the pueblo-ándidos and isthmids of a more primitive type, but we have to treat these ones separately). Together with this mongoloid feature appears the other one just mentioned, the disappearance of the beard and the strong body hair; this is what gives a first impression that these Indians are "yellow", but the physical features of their face generally belie this first impression. These features are more developed Caucasoid than those of the Amurians; especially their physiognomy is more sideways, that is to say, a more lateral physiognomy and not frontal, as the one considered typical of the Mongoloids.
The time when the first migration of these large individuals to America took place is not clear; it is generally considered to have taken place during the last retreat of the last glacial advance, that is to say, approximately 12,000 years before the Era. For us it is much older and proper of the beginning of the second advance of that last glacial, that is to say, in numbers, the double or little more of the expressed figure. Their culture would be of a developed Mousterian; they were already provided with the first spears with stone point, worked to percussion and in the form of laurel leaf, but not yet throwing, with the form that was obtained later thanks to the use of the stolic, propellant or atlatl, to say it with its Aztec name.
Moreover, it happens that this population is partly confused with another much later racial type, which was possibly the last to pass through the Bering Strait, before the Eskimos. We refer to the Athabascans of Hrdliçka, so badly confused by von Eicksted with the Columbids, a confusion repeated by Imbelloni and Canals Frau. They are distinguished, in their languages, by their way of counting, whose derivations reach as far as Patagonia, according to our personal study.
There are also one or more other racial forms that can be found in the
The same type of hair is also common among the people of Imbelloni, who seem to have more mongoloid features, but we do not distinguish them very well. All that has been said of them by the various authors is no more than the result of mean terms that include very different forms, so we can only say that they are quite dark in color, with a straight nose, subbrachycephalic head, a flatter face than the pampas and a height of little more than 1.60 meters. Their human type does not surpass that of the most primitive pampas.
The two groups of peoples we have just mentioned are the ones that have given a "mongoloid" physiognomy to the American Indians as a whole, but we repeat that, for the first case, it is especially only an external detail or a set of external details, which do not affect the basic structure of these individuals, which is not truly mongoloid.
In the Americas, there are other peoples who are more clearly Mongoloid or who consider themselves to be so. An interesting group of them is found among the Bororós of Matto Grosso and the indigenous people of the Gê linguistic group of Brazil. The latter are considered as laguids by Imbelloni and Canals Frau, but as soon as a few photographs of these indigenous groups become known, this is proved to be a mistake.
Among the Bororos there are numerous individuals of the Pampid race; Imbelloni, consequently, included them in that race, but there is another very different group that, this time, we can consider as more clearly mongoloid. This other human type appears with greater evidence among the women, although also among the men. It is of great importance that we do not know this human type in Siberia, while it does appear in several regions of Indonesia. Possibly, then, we are dealing with the first inter-Pacific oceanic immigrations.
Chapter V
Biology and Inheritance in Indigenous America
1. Our biotypological classification of human races
We speak here of a classification that we are not going to use in the present study, but of which we have made several publications. The main reason why we must cite it is that we do not want any critic to suppose that we have abandoned it. On the contrary, it is now much more developed than it appears in our publications - which date back several years - but we hope soon to expand what we have written about it.
We also have another extremely important reason for not using it in this work. It is that, as far as possible, we wish to keep within the interpretative line of the author Birdsell, whom we have quoted so much, and this in spite of the fact that there is a fundamental and insurmountable difference in the form of the study that we carry out: Birdsell deals, -or according to him, part- in his study, with the genetics of populations, we start from the genetics of individuals. However, when Birdsell deals with the cahuilla and pomo, insofar as they have Amurian traits, -as we have seen- he does so with respect to individuals.
Our classification -which is not ours in origin but that of the Argentine writer and poet Carlos Albert, only that we have applied it more especially to racial anthropology- is extensively published in the work signed by both authors, Las Bases de una Ciencia Nueva, and in summaries, in our works Argentina Indígena y Prehistoria Americana and Introducción a la Americanística, in addition to numerous loose articles.
The classification is not properly racial but biotypological, that is, more of a medical than anthropological type, such as the
known biotypological classifications by authors N. Pende, Krestmer, MacAulife, Sheldon and others. For us, this differentiation of classifications is meaningless, since the differentiation into anthropological and medical classifications occurs only in the classification of human beings. Indeed, on studying the subject in greater depth, we inevitably come across the undoubted fact that, in animals, biotype and race are one and the same thing. So, the same must be true of human beings.
There is another feature of extreme importance, present in almost all biotypological classifications that classify human constitutions and not races, more especially present and clear in Sheldon's classification. It is the fact that the existence of mestizo or hybrid individuals is not accepted. Every human type is pure in its constitution, and that is directly hereditary, according to Mendel's Laws. Such an interpretation is made possible by the fact that, in classifying constitutions, the external characters of skin, hair and eye color, traits so intensely employed by anthropologists, as we have been seeing, are automatically excluded.
This declaration and acceptance that biotype and race are one and the same thing is something completely new as far as the classification of human beings is concerned, so that it will undoubtedly surprise more than one reader with knowledge on the subject, but we repeat that, in animals, biotype and race are one and the same thing. The reason for this is that we have been able to study animals (including plants, that is, living beings in general) in a better way than human beings, without the weight of a classificatory tradition that has prevented us from seeing things better. It also turns out - or it will become clear in the following exposition - that we have to classify human beings in the same way we use for animals.
In other words, and to state the case better, we classify horses by their constitution, not by their color. If someone were to classify horses by their color instead of by their constitution, that is, if he were to form white, black, red, etc., races of horses, we would all (no matter how little we knew about horses) would automatically know that this individual knew nothing about horses, because a racehorse is a racehorse, no matter what color it is.
Personally, as boys, we had the experience
next. At our parents' house, there was a large coop, with Orpington hens of three colors: white, tawny and colored (that is, white, yellow and red). Later we learned that there were also black Orpingtons, but we didn't know them then). Besides, we knew the white Leghorn hens, naturally of a very different constitutional form from the Orpingtons, as they were small and very wandering, as opposed to the large and sedentary forms of the Orpingtons. In other words, they are commonly referred to as meat hens (the large ones) and egg hens (the small ones).
Years later, when we began to read about physical anthropology, we came across the common description of human races according to their colors, white, yellow, black, etc., and subsequently we realized that, if we applied that classification of human beings to chickens, we had to separate Orpington hens into four distinct races in addition to lumping white Orpington hens together with white Leghorn hens. The absurdity of such a result was plain to see, but that absurdity is what is done with the classification of human beings. We can give a clear example of the case. No one would think of classifying within the same human type the traditional figures of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, but if we think of the race to which those characters belonged, we say to ourselves: Both belong to the white race and we remain calm and sure of having obtained a total truth, in what we can now manifestly see that it is an evident falsehood. If there is no white race in horses and chickens, neither can there be in human beings.
We will go directly into the subject, but we will be very brief. We will expose only the basic points of this classification, which may be important to have an idea of it. In the new classification, human beings are distributed in two basic groups, which would also be those of all living species (animals and plants). These are called Branch F and Branch H. The most extensive demonstration of their actual existence is found in the works cited above. As a first example, we will begin by saying that race horses and Leghorn hens belong to Branch F; other horses and Orpington hens, to Branch H. In other words, it is a question of an agile, light and nervous form,
opposite to a thicker one, heavier in its movements and calmer.
In human beings, Branch F is represented by the true Mediterraneans, the Indonesians, the Japanese, the Watusis and the Bushmen of Africa, all of whom present us with slender and graceful human forms, notwithstanding the great stature of the Watusis. The Nordics, the Murrayans, the Carpathians, the Patagonians, the Armenoids, etc., represent Branch H. From what we have been presenting in this work, all the American races mentioned correspond to type H (apart from the very occasional presence of some F element among them), except the Mongoloid types which are found among the Bororos and the Gê as well as in the women of the Shirihana and Sirionó. It is important to point out that the Indonesians described by Imbelloni and Canals Frau are H, whereas we consider that what they describe are proto-Indonesians and that the true Indonesians are F-types.
Of great importance is the difference that, to the naked eye, is observed in the bones. The bones of human beings FF are always thinner, with the surface fine and lustrous like porcelain; the bones of H individuals are thicker, proportionately in the long bones, and up to more than twice as thick in the bones of the skull, while their surface is rather rough, smooth at most and not fine and lustrous. When cut, at the same place in the skull bones - especially in the thinner parts - the F bones show an interior that is spongy only in their middle part, while on their sides they show a broad diploe or compact mass; on the other hand, the bones of the H individuals are spongy to their very edge and rarely have a weak diploe. We repeat that it is possible to differentiate the bones with the naked eye, especially those of the skull, where the difference can be noticed even in a small piece.
When we discovered the difference expressed in the bones of our two human types, after a while it occurred to us that there must be another fundamental difference, or rather that it was due to a difference existing in their constituent element, that is, in their cells. As a consequence of this idea, we managed to make four cellular examinations in Cochabamba,
Bolivia, with the collaboration of Dr. Ana Kruger, a biologist, and the results of these experiments were extraordinary. Personally, we had assumed a difference in shape, but it turned out to be a difference in size: the constituent cells of the F bones had an average length of 21 microns, those of the H bones, 40 microns.
Unfortunately, the experience could not be continued, due to the total lack of economic means and could only be carried out with a sample of two human skulls (of pre-Columbian Indians), taking a small sample from each one, in the same place, a small sample. The same was done with two roosters obtained in the market and belonging to the two aforementioned branches. In both cases, human beings and roosters, the same difference appeared.
The said experience must be extended to hundreds, and its importance need not be emphasized, not only in physical and biological anthropology, but also especially in medicine. If the difference expressed extends to all the cells of the human body, as we believe, it turns out that one is working in transplants in the same way as in blood transfusions before even the four elementary groups of 0,A,B0, A, B and AB were known.
We return to our subject. In classifying animals by their constitution, not by their color, we distinguish their degrees of development, that is, we distinguish in horses, as an example (it happens with all animals and even with plants) which are primitive forms of them, considered as "inferior" and which are their more developed forms. The same happens with human beings.
As a result, human beings have been classified on an evolutionary scale, numbered from one to eight, where the highest number signifies the greatest development. This occurs in individuals of the F Branch as well as in those of the H Branch. We add - although this is not easy to understand, at first, so we refer the reader, for better explanation, to our work The Bases of a New Science - that the numbers 1 are not the lowest on the scale, but the numbers 2 are. The 1's have - it is not easy to explain it - an evolutionary scale of their own and are distributed in being equivalent, in their development, to the common numbers, especially to the 3, 5 and 7, that is to say, odd numbers. Here we cannot explain this further.
We continue with the description of the numbers. In each of the forms, F and H, we find various degrees of development, which refer both to the biological form or constitution of the individuals treated, and to their forms of feelings and intelligence. In other words, the physical traits are intimately and absolutely related to the mental traits and feelings. The greater the physical development, the greater the development of feelings and intelligence. All this is denied, especially in anthropological classifications, and we agree very much, if it is a question of relating feelings and intelligence to color traits, but if they are related to constitution, it is a different matter. As for the physical aspect and the feelings and intelligence, nobody would think of putting in Sancho Panza the feelings of Don Quixote and vice versa, so it is evident that the constitution is related to the spiritual part of the individuals.
The first form of this classification made by Charles Albert was made on the female sex of the human species (the letters F and H mean, respectively: F, female or female, light and agile form, and HH , female female, that is, heavy and slower type form. We, in extending the classification, reduce these names to their initial letters). The form FF , in the theory developed, signifies the upward and mutable force which drives forward evolution in its progressive march, and whose steps of development are fixed or made permanent by its assimilation by the H Branch, which is the conservative and stable part of the species.
We extend the first classification, to apply it to all living beings, animals and plants. Hence the need to reduce the original names to their initial letters.
As far as mental traits are concerned, to give an easy example, the F Branch comes to be what is generally supposed to be feminine character and psychology, while the H traits come to be the supposedly masculine ones. Another example: the mental traits come to be what are supposed to be Latin, as opposed to Germanic, which are typically H. Moreover, in Latin peoples, the F elements are about half or more, while the Germanic ones present the H element in proportion exceeding ninety percent.
The classification is based on the sexual traits of the individuals and their evolution, given by those sexual traits. The lowest numbers on this scale correspond to the most primitive human forms, originating in the Middle Paleolithic, thus continuing in evolution. What has been said about the forms typical of the Middle Paleolithic does not mean that they are extinct forms, since they are still abundant today, even if their features have been softened by continuous mixing with more recent forms.
Each type has its own physical and psychic characteristics, in every sense, in its constitutional biotypes. Color has no importance in the classification. The types are hereditary, according to Mendel's Laws, and unalterable in the life of the individuals, as are the blood groups. Sexual traits give the degrees of biological evolution and, thanks to their development - in quality, not in quantity - give greater development to individuals. The key to development lies in the way life develops, according to age: the possibility of advancement in the indefinite stages, that is, in the periods that have come to be called childhood and adolescence, and which are not a mere question of years, since in a good part of the people there is no childhood as such and, in the majority, there is almost no adolescence.
In other words, in the most primitive human beings (the same in any living species) individuals reach old age early (frequently around 30 years of age); in the average beings, a state of maturity is reached early that lasts for a long time; in the most developed beings an extension of adolescence takes place, which properly suppresses maturity and old age and forms a prolongation of adolescence. Human evolution, thus, appears as an extension and greater development of the first stages of life, prematurity, where the creative capacity of adolescence dominates, with all its possibilities of sublimation.
The F types, treated as a whole and mainly on their middle types, are of finer and more graceful bone structure than the H. In the face, the features are more angular; the forehead is bombé and broad; the eyes are large and oblique, usually without folds; the typical nose has straight and upturned forms, especially; the jaw is reduced in width towards the back, resulting in protruding cheekbones, although small. The indivi-
The human duos of type H are larger and thicker, with thick and heavy bones; in the face the features are more rounded and large; the forehead rather flat; the eyes are normally horizontal, with various external folds; the nose is straight or aquiline; the jaw, larger and thicker; very often, strong superciliary arches appear. In older individuals, the F's tend to dry out; the H's tend, in turn, to fatty degeneration, flabby, etc., unless they are hyperthyroid.
Each of the traits may be present in the opposite type, but the rule is that one or a few of them are present, within a set of opposite traits. The base is not mixed, that is to say, there are no proper mongrels, individuals who are both F and H. Every individual is pure in his constitutional base. The same is said in Sheldon's biotypological classification.
In the psychic traits, indissolubly linked to the previous ones in this classification, individuals FF have greater mental agility, greater speed of thought; at the same time, their way of thinking is less organized. This comes to be a difference such as that generally attributed to the difference in thinking typical of the sexes, or of Latin versus Germanic thinking, as we have already said. The H individuals work in a more organized and constant way, making up with the latter for the speed of action, more typical of the Fs.
As for the innate mental expressions of both types, we can see them clearly expressed in their artistic forms, especially in the drawings that each of them can make. Looking at any drawing, one can see the human type that has made it. For example, in the drawings of the prehistory of Spain, we have clearly expressed the type H in the paintings of Altamira, while the type F appears in an unmistakable form, in the drawings of the Southwest of Spain, in the Levantine art.
The same - and perhaps to a greater degree - occurs with cartoons and caricatures. As an example, F individuals tend to exaggerate the size of the forehead and reduce the face, while H individuals tend to suppress the forehead and increase the size of the face.
In today's Western Culture, the male human form is considered to correspond purely and exclusively to H-forms and the female to F-shapes.
caricatures, etc., in most cases. The most typical of this is the fact that the female mannequins in the stores are always of type FF in their features, while in the tailors' shops, the male mannequins are of type H. We know of no exceptions to this rule: we have been to Holland, where all the Dutch women we met were H , but in their stores, the mannequins were always F.
The most primitive human forms, of both branches, are characterized in sexual matters by a deep fear of sex. In other words, they suffer from "sexual terror". Everything that is sex inspires them with fear; on the contrary, in the more developed types, feelings of sexual exaltation are present, intimately related to religious feelings. Sexual and religious facts always go together; in the lower types, together with this fear, there is the idea and the fear of "sin" (which is always sexual); in the more developed types, on the other hand, the sexual act itself becomes directly a religious act.
To better understand the whole of this classification, it is important to look at the way we conceive the origin and development of the human species, which is the same process followed by all living beings.
The origin of our species is to be found in a previous anthropoid form which has already disappeared (apparently the Australopithecines of Africa) from which the new species was produced by mutation, with the Pithecanthropes as an intermediate form. These kinds of mutations that form new species are produced by an alteration in the birth state. The mutation that produced our species was of a type called fetalization, that is to say that the new species was born as a sietemesine of the previous species, and from there its development started. This fact is very rare in the evolution of mammals, whose type of evolution has been that of being born each time in a state of greater development, that is to say, of gerontization or aging; It is enough to consider the state of birth of primitive mammals, such as the marsupials, whose state of birth comes to be, let us say, of cincomesino, as opposed to the more developed mammals, such as the horse, which is born at least in a state of treintamesino - in comparison with man - and begins to walk half an hour after birth.
In contrast, insects have followed an opposite evolutionary process, from more to less, that is, their most primitive forms are born fully developed ( sin\sin metamorphosis: tisanurs) and the most developed forms, which are born as little worms, pass through the nymph stage and finally reach their perfect or adult form.
The process of the appearance of man, then, is the reverse of that of almost all mammals and resembles that of the most developed social insects; this process continues within the same species: from the most primitive to the most developed human forms, as regards their state of birth, there is a difference which must be about one month. It is remarkable that this, which has been noticed long ago with regard to the existence of notable differences in the state of birth of human beings, has not served until now, as a classificatory criterion.
Hence, what was said before, that is, that the most primitive human forms reach old age quickly, a prolonged old age; the middle forms have a prolonged maturity and the higher forms extend their adolescence for a long time.
In comparison with the older forms of the human species - the "disappeared" fossil forms - we find that, as a general rule, the skeletal remains of F human beings have been "eliminated" by prehistoric researchers, since they show "finer" features and have been considered as belonging to more recent forms. Therefore, the remains of the pitecanthropoids are all H , with the exception of the third jaw of Atlanthropus from Morocco, which is F-1 or F-2. Then, the individuals of the Neanderthal race are all of type H-2 and H-3, with some H-1, as is the case with the Rhodesian skull.
In the so-called Homo sapiens sapiens that began, it is said, in the Upper Paleolithic, about 35,000 years ago, we find the first H-4 human types, typified by Cro-Magnon Man and also F-3 individuals, such as the Negroids of Grimaldi. At the end of the Upper Paleolithic, in the Magdalenian period, some individuals of type H-5 already appear. On the other hand, the Chancelade skull is clearly of type H-1. The
more developed forms are already characteristic of the Neolithic of the Metal Ages.
At the same time, all the human forms that we have mentioned - from the most primitive to the most developed - exist today in the human species and not only in the peoples that preserve a primitive culture, but also in the most developed cities. The same thing happens in animals: in horses or dogs we find today highly developed and specialized forms, together with primitive, preserved forms.
In the world's current population, F-type individuals occupy especially the warmer central areas of the world, from the Mediterranean, throughout South Asia and as far as Indonesia and the Amazon region of indigenous America. H types dominate in the more temperate and colder regions, but there is no shortage of FF individuals among the Eskimo.
The proportion of the two types is not regular in the world today; it may be considered that there are approximately three H-type individuals for every one F-type. Naturally, the more primitive type individuals are generally a minority, as are the more developed ones; the normal human predominance is in the middle types.
There are many other points to be dealt with in this new classification, but we cannot go any further. We have already developed it enough.
As far as we are interested in the present work, the human types of indigenous America that we have been dealing with so far -that is, those of the Murrayan race- are basically of the H-2 human type, while those of the carpentary type are H-1, in a degree of development equivalent to H-3. On the other hand, those that we shall deal with later in this chapter, i.e., those of the armenoid race, are predominantly of human type H-5-6\mathrm{H}-5-6 , which does not mean that there are no more or less developed individuals in them. Individuals of type F, in their various degrees of development, we shall see only slightly in this work. Suffice it to say here that their more primitive forms entered also by way of the Bering Strait and that their more developed American forms - Indonesians of type F-4-5-6 - did so by way of the trans-Pacific route.
2. Problems in the study of race and heredity.
We now have a series of problems concerning the inheritance of the human races and, no doubt, of other living beings. Some of the points, we have already seen that Birdsell deals with, especially with criticisms to the existence of the considered "average values", among the mestizos. In this we are very much in agreement, since we also consider that there are no such average values, but rather the predominance of one of the two elements of mixture, which sometimes becomes total.
This total predominance is especially cited by Birdsell with respect to individuals, or rather, carpentary females crossed with Mongoloid males. Here again we have to agree, although our reasons are partly different: the carpentaries are individuals of type H-1, equivalent to 3 in our classification. It so happens that we have observed that, in all cases, the F-1 and H-1 elements are recessive to any of the other numbers; only one trait of them is dominant in inheritance: cranial height. Consequently, an H-1 individual crossed with an H-2 (i.e., carpentariomurrayan, that mixture) gives a resulting individual whose skull height is elevated and which is always Murrayan or Amurian.
This makes type 1 individuals visible only when their two elements, both recessive and dominant, are type 1; all other human types cover type 1 elements.
On the other hand, Birdsell, in his racial interpretation, follows the interpretative theory of the inheritance of populations. Here we do not agree. This is not what forms the races. This does not mean that we deny the existence of this "inheritance of populations" - there is no doubt that it exists and, in the long run, it forms groups that can become very homogeneous - but it does not mean that a race has been formed there. Moreover, Birdsell himself has to resort to individuals when it comes to showing us the races he is dealing with.
This idea that heredity is found in populations is a direct derivative of the interpretive thesis that, in order for new races to form, this has to occur through a
group of individuals in geographic isolation, which allows them to "homogenize" their physical characteristics over centuries or millennia. We consider that to sustain that is a complete arbitrariness. It is well known that, in cases of geographic isolation that occur, for example, in birds that remain isolated, as soon as the relationship with the mother group is resumed, the new form produced is doomed to disappear. Secondly - and this is more important - such homogenization can only occur if the group that has become isolated is already relatively homogeneous in origin.
A very clear example. The best and controlled cases of "geographic" isolation are produced artificially, by our own doing, with our domestic animals, isolated in separate pens for many generations. If we put Orpington and Leghorn hens, both white, together in the same coop and crossbreed them for many generations, will a generalized intermediate form be produced? Absolutely not. Theoretically we can even suppose that the stronger cock, the Orpington, eliminates his adversary and then remains the only possible parent of the new hens, but the Leghorn element does not disappear in the mixture, that is, hens (and cocks) of both types continue to be born, even if the Orpington element is dominant and the Leghorn recessive. As soon as the recessive elements are brought together, the graceful form of the Leghorn hen reappears.
That is what the Laws of Inheritance that we know tell us and which, above all, need to be revised quite a lot, because in the way things are now commonly exposed, they are full of errors, especially when they are simplified in the examples of the works of physical anthropology and in common teaching. Some basic errors are in the specialized works themselves.
There are three little squares on heredity, according to Mendel's Laws, which we usually find in specific works - at least one or two of them - and which serve as the basis for teaching. When any of these "little squares" is missing, it means that it has been substituted by another similar or similar-looking one. These squares represent to us the heritage of the crossing of round and wrinkled peas, white and gray mice, and Maravilla or Maravilla flowers.
Dondiego in red and white. We believe that all readers will be familiar with at least one of these "squares". Unfortunately, however, the explanations given for these squares are, in the first two cases, badly done, and in the last one, the same square is simply falsified.
Let's start with the mice. There, the picture is well done, but it is often forgotten to tell us that the white mouse is not white, it is albino (i.e. without color, that is recognized by its red eyes). The result is that the presence of a color gene (gray) is used here against the absence of a color gene, corresponding to white. This picture is real and valid, but in no way can it be compared with the other two, where there are two inheritance genes.
We continue with peas. There, round peas are crossed with wrinkled ones, generation Padres; self-fertilized the resulting plants (generation F 1), it is pretended that all the seeds produced are smooth yy , self-fertilized again those plants (generation F 2), they would give three round seeds for each wrinkled one; the last one is pure and, self-fertilized, gives in its offspring only wrinkled seeds; of the three round seeds, one gives only round seeds and the other two segregate again.
This whole explanation is false. Mendel, who performed the first experiment, did not say that. Things have been confused, with the result obtained with the little mice, which, as we have already seen, is not comparable. Mendel said the following: if we cross these plants (Parent generation), we obtain round seeds and, from them, we are in the F1 generation, that is, this generation starts from round seeds, but does not give them. What it gives is what is attributed to the F 2 generation, that is, the proportion of three round seeds for one wrinkled one, and that is the F 2 generation, which is counted from the seeds that produce them, not from those that it gives, which are already F 3 generation.
Another important fact, never presented as we do here, is that pea plants bearing round seeds have white flowers and those bearing wrinkled seeds have purple flowers. For seed shape, in their inheritance, the round ones are dominant and the wrinkled ones recessive, but in the flowers the reverse is true, so that in the F 1 generation, flowers
are purple, although the seeds they give from their fertilization are round. This fact is of extraordinary importance, as we shall soon see.
We move on to the third little square. We said that here things are falsified and, in effect, here it is pretended that in the results of the first generation, F 1, all the flowers are pink and that in generation F 2, in every four plants, one gives red flowers, two give pink flowers and another gives white flowers, and at the same time, that both the plants that give red flowers and those that give white flowers have returned to their primitive forms and are pure in their descendants, while those that give pink flowers continue to segregate.
We have to repeat that all this is false. We have worked for several years with the inheritance of these plants and the results can be summarized as follows. First, we fertilized several white-flowered Dondiego plants with pollen from plants that gave red flowers, and started about a dozen seeds. We planted those seeds and they gave us plants (generation F 1), the floral results of which were as follows: on the same plant flowers were produced in the proportion expressed for the second generation on different plants, that is, every fourth flower one was red, two "pink" and one white. We repeat that this occurred on the same plant, generation F 1, not on different plants of generation F 2. And there, in generation F 1, it is claimed that there are only pink flowers.
Then, the facts that we have just presented are not comparable with any of the two previous cases mentioned, since they occur within the development of the plant, not in its descendants, and in addition, the red and white flowers of that plant are not pure, since being on the same plant they have to carry as a recessive the other color. If the recessives of two red flowers are united, for example, they can give a plant that gives white flowers and that is of pure white flowers in its descendants. We have not finished. It happens now that the pink flowers are never pink, but are white based speckled with red dots, also very frequently, they have alternating lists or bands of white and red, or they may be half red and half white. We have seen several hundred plants with the purported pink flowers, both in Argentina and in Bolivia and Spain, and we have never seen that they have a truly pink flower, that is to say, that they had a pink flower.
in them a true fusion of the original colors. Although we have not experimented with them, the same is true of carnations, as anyone can see for themselves in a flower shop.
The matter is even more serious than it seems. It is always claimed that dominance and recessivity are established at the moment of fertilization, thanks to a genetic struggle. But here it happens that, in flowers with a white base speckled with red - or in flowers with red and white bands - there is neither complete dominance nor a fusion of colors, one color and the other appear alternately. There can be no other explanation but that, in each flower, the same thing occurs, or rather, in each of the cells that constitute it, the same struggle must take place.
Herein lies the major importance of the matter. In these cells, where each color can be dominant or recessive, there is no destruction of genes, as occurs before fertilization. As a forced consequence, it is not a struggle, but something that we have had to call genetic dance, where one of the factors leads and the other is led, in close collaboration, which is a harmony of the parts.
In present-day biology - beginning with genetics - Darwin's ideas on the struggle for life still dominate, but in what we have just seen, things have changed completely. Within the cells of a living being, from the very moment of fertilization, there is no struggle (before fertilization there is no struggle either, but rivalry to arrive before fertilization and destruction of the spermatozoa that lost the race), but a genetic dance, on the harmony of which the development of the living being depends. The biological concept of what life is changes completely with this. Certainly, in the vast majority of cases, there is complete dominance, but since there is also no destruction of genes, we simply find that one of the factors is a better dancer and always leads the other.
We forgot another important point. Since Mendel himself, we are always told that it does not matter at all the direction of the cross between the two elements that are crossed first, that is to say, it is indifferent whether one or the other of the two beings to be crossed is used as father (or mother), since the result is always the same.
itself. It seems obvious to us that this is the case in most cases, but -there is always a but that usually bothers us- it happens that since our adolescence we have known that there is a strong difference between a mule and a hinnies. No doubt few readers will know what a hinny is, but it is simply a mule "made upside down". Its shape is different and its size smaller; the mule is the daughter of a donkey and a mare, the hinny is the son of a foal and a donkey and the result, as we have just said, is different; a smaller animal with several different traits. That must mean that it is not the same thing to use the pollen of a giant pea plant to fertilize a dwarf plant and the opposite, but we have not done experiments on the case.
It is time for us to return to our basic subject, that is, bearded and mustachioed men, Caucasoid or Australoid, in pre-Columbian America. With what we have just outlined, we have enough material to adequately understand some of the main problems we face.
We can try to understand things from the following point of view: in peas, round and wrinkled are constitutional forms that undoubtedly depend on their internal elements (starchy and waxy as we believe, because in wheat and corn it is so, but we do not know about peas), so that is the basic element: the purple color of the flowers of wrinkled peas is dominant over the white of round peas and that is secondary. We already know that and now we can apply the case to humans. In this we see that the color of the flowers of wrinkled peas is an external element, although it is undoubtedly internal to their cells.
In no way do we suppose the facts to be as simple as we present them here, but as the case requires an explanation, we endeavor to give it, and necessarily in the simplest and most easily understood form. We are working in this interpretation only on the basis of a few hereditary elements, when we know that in man there are some three dozen thousand hereditary elements. They are supposed to combine randomly, so there are many billions of possibilities of different mixtures, but we object to that, directly. For us, the vast majority of hereditary elements are of a secondary nature and are of no great importance.
The color traits are manifestly secondary, as we have seen, and here it is appropriate to give further explanation. The color traits are manifestly secondary, as we have seen, and here it is appropriate to give further explanation.
The color of the skin, in man, corresponds to a single hereditary element that is probably governed by more than one gene, two or three at least; that element is called melanin. Its complete lack corresponds to the albinos, a small amount in the skin, which allows the blood to be transparent through it, gives the pinkish-white tone characteristic of the Nordic peoples, many Slavs and Armenoids; a greater amount, just enough to prevent the blood from being transparent, gives the white-matte; a greater amount gives the brownish-white and a large amount is what is called black, which is never such, because the melanin has a chocolate, brown or brown color, as we want to call it.
Now, the differentiation of colors that is present in the human species also appears in our domestic animals, but not in wild animal species, which normally have only one color, or rather, a coloration of their own that may consist of several colors, as in the lagoon bird, called seven colors, in hummingbirds, etc. This is common in birds, but not in mammals.
Franz Boas explained the case well, in a work that we do not have at hand to quote. We rely on it to talk about the variation of colors in the human species and in domestic animals. It is as follows: wild animals, in their natural environment, need a suitable protective coloration that hides them from their enemies or prey. Color mutations occur naturally in them, but because they are less favorable, their carriers have fewer opportunities to reproduce. For example, a black or red colored lion would be more easily spotted by its prey and it would be much more difficult for it to "make a living" and perpetuate itself. When man learned to domesticate animals, these color mutations also occurred, attracted his attention and he reproduced in greater numbers these mutated animals, which did not need their natural protective color, because man defended them. Now, before
to domesticate the animals, man had to domesticate himself, living in numerous groups capable of defending themselves and which, for this reason, no longer needed so much of their own natural color which, originally, was not to be found in any of the two extremes of color expressed above. Man must have even produced "spots of color", as in cows, horses and dogs, but the aesthetic sentiment of man rejected this and these people could not reproduce adequately (there are such people, spotted). Result: the original color of man must have been a brownish-white tone, more or less; from it came the extreme variations of color decrease and increase, which were perpetuated, producing the pinkish-white and black (chocolate) forms.
We return to our hereditary elements, that is, to the shape and color of the peas, the round ones with white flowers and the wrinkled ones with purple flowers. We already know how their inheritance occurs, their dominance and recessivity. And here we have to face the issue of population genetics, accepting its postulates. We can accept the existence of a population of peas that originates in a mixture of both types, necessarily cultivated by the hand of man, but which we will suppose in a natural state. At the beginning of this mixture - in its first generations - the results of Mendel's Laws would be produced, since every four pea plants would produce three round and one wrinkled, and every four flowering plants, three with purple flowers and one with white flowers; but after a few dozen or rather hundreds of generations, a homogeneity would be produced, where the plants would produce round peas and purple flowers, while the appearance of the opposite elements would be rare.
We consider that this is what has occurred in the oldest population of America, which arrived by way of the Bering Strait no less than half a thousand centuries ago. The Amurian elements in America, which correspond to an H-2 form in our classification, and which, being H-2, are dominant in terms of the inheritance of their constitution, are perpetuated in terms of their form, while the external features of color, coming from the Mongoloids or yellows, have dominated more or less completely with respect to color.
Already Imbelloni said that a Mongoloid element had uniformly dominated the external features of the American Indians, but he gave no genetic explanation of the process that will have taken place.
We note that we have not explained well - or to our liking, at least - what dominance and recessivity in heredity are. In all the studies of the case that we know of, the dominant elements in heredity are supposed to be the superior ones, but it happens that we consider them as inferior.
As we believe, this difference has resulted from the following fact: naturally, the study of dominance and recessivity in heredity has been done almost exclusively on our domesticated animals and plants. As a result, it has been considered that the inheritance traits most profitable for our interests are the superior ones, but we have wondered (we have always looked at the "other side" of things), whether that was the most convenient for animals and plants.
Evidently it is not. All our domestic animals and plants tend to return to their original forms, when they escape the control of man, returning to the wild, because the new forms that we have obtained in them - and that are beneficial to us - cannot persist without the care of man and, certainly, they harm those beings in their natural state, where they continue their own process of evolution. We cultivate those beings so that they give us more profit: more meat in the cattle, more bacon and hams in the pigs, more flour in the wheat, and so on. What we do is to degenerate them, with respect to their evolution in the species, in favor of us; but the cows have no interest in producing more meat or milk, nor the wheat in giving more flour, for they are degenerations, as it happens among us, with human beings weighing more than one hundred and twenty kilos (we have known several. They could never live like that in a natural environment, where they would have to earn their living by their own effort) and with athletes who are pure muscle.
In inheritance - following our classification - the dominant elements are always the lower numbers (except one); they dominate all other numbers. In the latter we refer to the numbers 2, and so on. We allude to their
basic, constitutional, internal traits, not external ones such as color, which are completely secondary in heredity, since we do not think or feel according to the color of our skin, our hair or our eyes. All this is governed by internal elements, in immediate relation to the constitutional traits.
Consequently, the elements of Amurian origin in America are much more abundant than it seems, but they are for the most part "masked" by the external mongoloid dominance that has given them their skin color (in reality, not at all different from that of the brown-whites) and more especially the black color and the thick and rounded shape of their hair, at the same time that it has made them lose their beard. This last detail is also important due to the contradictory fact that the beard is normally dominant, but undoubtedly the millenary crossbreeding with beardless individuals ended up weakening this character until it disappeared. Another important detail of the Amurians in America is their fleeing jaw shape, which persists in numerous individuals of type H-2 among the natives, as it also occurs among whites and some Mongoloids.
We have left out other important features: the sunken root of the nose - which is not Mongoloid but Amurian - the trilobular base of the nose, etc., because we cannot deal with everything here, and we consider that we have already developed the subject sufficiently.
3. Population Genetics
It is necessary for us to deal somewhat with the subject procedure of study of human beings, which is called "population genetics"; it is applied to human beings as well as to animals and plants. We have already spoken in several ơportunities about this, but as Birdsell's interpretation for American lands, is quite based on it, we have to expand on what has been said.
In our previous criticisms we have already stated our position: individuals should be studied more. The study of populations
The study of indigenous peoples and their inheritance is a separate matter. In our way of working, we have to start from the indigenous people we have seen by sight and from illustrations, that is to say, we have to deal with individuals and not with populations. All the genetics of populations is useless to us if we have to classify a skull, a person who appears in a photograph - either alive or represented in a sculpture or painting - or even any person we know.
But it becomes necessary to know more about the population genetics invoked by Birdsell. For this purpose, the best we can think of is to reproduce a text dealing with the subject. Of the material available to us, the best is found in the work Introduction to Anthropology, by Ralph Beals and Harry Hoijer, who deal with this point on pages 155-159. For this reason, we reproduce it in its entirety.
"7. Selection and evolution in populations
"In sexually reproducing organisms more than one individual is involved in the production of offspring. If more than one generation is considered, there are a number of individuals that are actually or potentially involved in the selective process. Not only does reproduction involve the action of chance at the cellular level, but there is also a chance element or selection that determines that two individuals from an entire population are involved in a given act of reproduction.
"The unit of study at this level is the population. In genetic language, a population is the group of individuals among which matings occur if considered over several generations. All species composed of large numbers of individuals are made up of varying numbers of isolated progeny or populations, in which most and, in some extreme cases, all matings occur. Such populations vary characteristically in the genes carried by their members. The sum of all genes and alleles found in a given population forms the gene pool of that population. While the gene pool of a population may vary with respect to the presence or absence of specific genes or alleles, more characteristically they vary in the percentage of alleles found in each. If populations are capable of interbreeding (and most populations interbreed to some extent with neighboring populations), the sum of the gene pools of all related populations forms the gene pool of the species.
"Given the special nature of the process of inheritance, with segregation and recombination occurring in sexual reproduction, an interbreeding population will show a constant genotypic composition over successive generations, and there are perfectly fortuitous matings, and no external factors affecting the genetic composition of the group. This principle, stated independently by Hardy and Weinberg in 1908, is known today as the Hardy-Weinberg law. It states the statics of a fairly large population in total isolation, in a uniform environment, with the resulting absence of selection, no mutation and no chance genetic drift. But selection, mutation and chance genetic drift (defined later) always prevent perfect equilibrium and are the dynamic causes of evolution at the micro and macro evolutionary levels.
"In the previous section we have studied the problems that arise in the establishment of a mutation at the cellular and at the individual level, a mutation being a new allele or other new genetic combination. If such new genetic matter is to have any significance beyond the individual plane, it clearly has to become established in the population of which the individual is a member. As we have shown, becoming established is largely a matter of chance.
"Many of the same problems exist in established alleles if the breeding population is small. The number of such alleles in a small population will fluctuate over 'sampling errors' in the segregation and recombination process. If, in a given generation, the percentage of individuals possessing a given allele is small, there is a chance that none of them will transmit the allele to their offspring. Consequently, the allele will disappear from the gene pool of the population. This process is known as genetic drift. Through its action, the gene pool of small populations will progressively change over time and the amount of variation will decrease if there is no compensatory completion by new mutations or by chance interbreeding with neighboring gene pools.
"In large populations, the effects of chance genetic drift are limited. Genes may disappear from certain family lineages, but the chances of disappearance are slim if the gene frequency is not too small. If their distribution is contracted by chance genetic selection in one generation, it will expand by the same process in successive generations. In small populations, however, chance drift can have important effects. But it should be noted that the first humans existed in small populations.
"To clarify this, let us take the example of a genetic locus having two alleles: A and aa , and a being lethal or recessive. To simplify the problem we will assume that all individuals homozygous with respect to aa die sin\sin reproducing. Being otherwise equal, the percentage of the aa gene in a given population will reach an equilibrium point, and the percentage will remain constant.
"That end is reached by the process of chance segregation and recombination of chromosomes and their corresponding genes. Assuming we are dealing with a simple Mendelian characteristic, the hybrid F_(1)@F_{1} \circ heterozygous individuals will reproduce gametes with equal numbers of A and a alleles, and the zygote generation F_(2)F_{2} will reproduce the normal ratio of 1 aa 2Aa2 \mathrm{~A} a : 1AA. In this generation we still have an equal number of A and aa genes present, but the aaa a individuals do not reproduce: AA will reproduce as AA without loss of genes, while the A a individuals will continue to reproduce in the normal ratio of 1: 2: 1. But in the F_(3)\mathrm{F}_{3} generation 50 percent of the aa genes will have been lost, because the homozygous individuals carrying them died before reproducing. In each surviving generation the same process will be repeated. But as the heterozygous A aa individuals of each generation produce additional AA homozygotes, which lose half of the aa genes, the percentage of aa genes and heterozygotes will progressively decrease until, by the action of chance factors in segregation and recombination, a may theoretically disappear from the population.
"In reality, all other things are rarely equal. In many cases, the a gene is not immediately lethal. Then the a a homozygotes reproduce, but in smaller proportion than the heterozygotes or the AA homozygotes. In this case, a certain equilibrium may be reached; but, in general, the final results are analogous to those of the previous case, although the decrease is spread over a greater number of generations.
"In many cases, heterozygotes may be better adapted to the existing environment than AA homozygotes. An example by the way is the sickle cell trait in man, which we have already mentioned (see 2). Homozygous aaa a individuals, it will be recalled, rarely reproduce, most dying before reaching reproductive age. However, heterozygous Aa\mathrm{A} a individuals are more resistant to malaria than AA homozygotes. Consequently, heterozygous individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce. Hence, the percentage of aa alleles is higher than 'all else being equal'. In a given population, however, an equilibrium of percentages of AA and aa alleles would be reached, which would depend on.
the intensity of exposure to malaria. Furthermore, if the group moves to an environment where malaria is not present or where public health has eliminated it, the ratio between the A and a alleles would change quite rapidly by selection, as the heterozygotes lose their adaptive advantage.
"Human populations generally live in a complex environment. As a result, the organism is subjected during its lifetime to different adaptive needs at different times, with corresponding differences in selective pressures. Thus, varying selective pressures may favor different phenotypes at different times and places. And, as a consequence, the population remains polymorphic or polytypic. That is, several genotypes may persist in an equilibrium species for long periods of time. However, a change of environment may alter the adaptive advantages of a given genotype, and selection will produce a relatively rapid alteration in the proportions of the genotype.
"Another way to change the gene pool of a population is through gene flow. Since breeding populations are seldom completely isolated, splicing can occur between members of two different populations. In the case of an isolated contact, the establishment of a new gene in another population is subject to the same vagaries as the establishment of a new mutation. With an increased frequency of crossbreeding, the gene pools merge and a single procreating population may be formed. Such events are always conditioned by existing selective pressures.
"In summary, theoretically, a procreating population in which all conditions are constant will, according to the Hardy-Weinberg law, reach a state of genetic equilibrium. Variations from such a state of equilibrium are caused by the following factors:
"(1) Mutation, both between genes and between chromosomes, occurs by biochemical changes in the gene or by processes of translocation and duplication. Such changes occur in fairly normal proportions in the best-studied organisms. If a mutation becomes stable in a population, it alters the gene pool. If it is deleterious, it adds to the genetic load of the population.
^("n2) "){ }^{\text {n2) }} Genetic drift arises from sampling errors in the process of segregation and recombination of genes in the process of sexual reproduction. In large populations, drift is important only in the temporary elimination of genes from a given family lineage. However, in small populations, genes may be permanently lost from the gene pool, and the gene pool changes or drifts slowly over time.
"(3) Gene flow occurs when neighboring populations occasionally interbreed. New genes enter the gene pool and become stabilized in much the same way as mutations.
"(4) Selective pressures will favor the persistence of some genes and act against the survival of others. The effectiveness of selective pressures is measured primarily by differences in the reproductive rate of individuals. Probably of little importance in all organisms except man are all deleterious genes that do not become functional until after their carriers have passed reproductive age. Since the environment - a concept to be interpreted very broadly - is changing almost constantly, the gene pool is subject to constant change because of selective pressures."
The quotation, as we said, has been long, but in it we find all the fundamental facts of this method of study, which we have already expressed that we are not convinced; for us evolution occurs rather where there are important populations, not in small isolated groups, but what seems evident is that this method pursues research purposes different from ours. Another point on which we strongly disagree is the assumption that chance is involved in the fundamental facts of evolution, although we do not dispute that it plays an important role in all the external, secondary facts of evolution. In other words, the basic facts that refer to evolution within each species, and that seem to refer basically to the state of birth, are internal facts and have a rhythm of their own that cannot be altered mostly by external influences, just as a creature cannot help but transform into an adult. Yes, external facts will decide whether it will be a well-developed adult (e.g., by good nutrition, etc.) or an adult with constitutional deficiencies.
In addition, we clearly warn that the study procedure that we are dealing with, in no way serves us to interpret the facts that we study, whose object is to explain the presence of the beard and the mustache in numerous pre-Columbian natives. Undoubtedly, it could serve to study the Guayaquíes in their present state and to draw conclusions, due to the fact that they have remained for a long time in "geographical isolation", but this is not the only way to explain the presence of the beard and mustache in the pre-Columbian Indians.
subject is not of the slightest importance in our study yy , frankly, we do not know what purpose it would serve.
We are completely against the study of populations replacing the study of individuals. This even contradicts our principles, because we are interested in individuals; through their understanding, we consider that we arrive at the study of populations, which, as you can see, is something completely different. To put it in other words, the study of a wheat field of "pure lines", we do not believe that it is of much importance for the study of the origin and evolution of the various breeds of wheat; moreover, we do not believe that these "pure lines" occur very often in the natural, non-domestic state of any breed.
Birdsell especially asks us to define the American Indians on the basis of their living forms, rejecting cranial data. This serves him above all to deny the existence of Negroid elements in pre-Columbian America; but to do so would mean setting aside the whole study of paleoanthropology, for example, in Europe; we would have to abandon completely the classification of the Cro-Magnon men as white and the Grimaldi skeletons as Negroid. This is quite difficult for us.
Likewise, we do not believe that the relation that Birdsell points out of "big teeth-prognathism" is very certain, since we have had in our hands numerous skulls with prognathism and quite small teeth, as well as big teeth in non-prognathic jaws. Such a thing must correspond to hereditary facts, which we do not yet know.
It is interesting to insist here on several other facts, important to understand our interpretation and the set of features we are dealing with. In the first place, the date assigned for the introduction of the Amurians in America, according to Birdsell. We would be in about 40,000 years, a time of prehistory in which the full Homo sapiens sapiens would not have existed (at most, it would be in its beginnings; it would not have reached the marginal regions, such as Siberia), so we would still be in the time of the Neanderthal man (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis). Hence our interpretation that the Amurian-
Murrayans are generalized Neanderthaloids, which is further confirmed by their culture, which is quite primitive Mousterian. Birdsell does not directly indicate this figure of about 40,000 years, but says that these Amurians would have passed to America during the last interglacial. That means, even, a much higher possible date, since the end of that last interglacial is placed at least today, in about 60,000 years; there are many authors who increase that figure up to double, date in which in no way could exist the so-called "modern man".
That primitive Caucasoid population still exists and not only with the Amurian and Murrayan forms, but is also found (as individuals) in the three Great Races (whites, yellows and blacks), but naturally, everywhere they are highly crossed with the more developed forms of modern man yy , therefore, their coarse features are very attenuated, especially for having acquired a greater height of the head or skull.
We had forgotten to point out another important detail: the Isthmian race of Imbelloni, which is supposed to be extremely Mongoloid; because of its low skull it seems to us to be directly Amurian, naturally crossed with Mongoloids, which have made it lose its beard, etc.; but because of its bony characteristics it is still Amurian. Let us remember that Imbelloni characterized this race on the basis of the "coarser" features found in the region. He attributes to them to be the bearers of the most developed American culture, which seems to us to be totally incongruous. Never could these primitive human forms have been the bearers of such a high cultural development.
One last point to consider. Birdsell expressly tells us that, in Amurians crossed with Mongoloids, if that admixture is of a 30%30 \% , the Amurian traits would be indistinguishable. In the first place, we believe that this account is not very well done: in the first generation of crossbreeding, the resulting elements would be 50%50 \% for each; in the second generation, 25% for the Amurian traits re-crossed with Mongoloids; but there, according to the Laws of Inheritance, one in four of the resulting offspring would have to come out again as
pure Amurian form, so we do not quite understand the 30%30 \% . Two thirds of the remaining offspring would have to be mixed amurian-mongoloid forms, with mongoloid dominance in the exterior and amurian in their internal traits; no doubt this is quite abundant in indigenous America, but we do not want to see it. From their interbreeding, the new generations would have to produce, in the same proportion, new pure Amurian individuals; we consider that this is what has occurred in more than one of the examples presented by Birdsell, since the Amurian population that he has found in the Californian regions seems much less pure than that which appears among the Guayaquíes of Paraguay.
Men with beards and aquiline noses in the Americas
1. Another white race in Pre-Columbian America
We are now faced with the study of an American population of a completely different type from the primitive Caucasoids we have studied so far. These are also individuals with abundant beards and moustaches, so that they must also be considered as Caucasoids, but now they are much more developed individuals than those treated previously, that is, in our classification they are H-5-6 individuals, even some H-7; their racial type corresponds preferably to what in physical anthropology is called the white armenoid or asiroid race. In other words, the race that appears preferentially in ancient Assyrian and Hittite sculptures, the last of which are the Hittites of the Bible.
We will begin by recalling this: Birdsell specifies that his Caucasoid Amurians have as a proper feature -among their features- a concave nose, a fact on which we have not insisted, but which is of great importance; the Mongoloids also have, generally, a concave nose, but there are a good number among them who have a straight nose. A deeply aquiline nose we consider to be among the most anti-Mongoloid that can be asked for.
Birdsell makes a good effort to explain the presence of aquiline noses in America, as we have seen; his interpretative explanation may be quite valuable in explaining some individual cases, but we do not think it is applicable, for example, to explain that trait among armenoids themselves, something
This should have been taken care of by the author, who undoubtedly had more facilities than us to have in his hands more than one armenoid skull, the presentation of which would have been extremely effective to prove his thesis, definitely.
Another important feature is the oblique eyes, which we have already said are often confused with the Mongolian fold. This feature is most common among the Mediterraneans and the peoples of the Near East, without the Mongolian fold being found in them. Moreover, we can remember that the feature of slanted eyes, slanted, is closely linked in the ancient Mediterranean to the expansion made by the Phoenicians, of the Orientalizing Culture of Greece and Etruria.
The feature that we are dealing with now and in it we have to "catch hold of the nose" appears in all the great pre-Columbian American cultures, at least since 1500 B.C., as much in Mesoamerica as in the Andean region; it is the prominent aquiline nose, armenoid, which is not "Semitic", as more than one supposes. It is not an absolute feature, but dominant, since some straight noses also appear, at the same time that the other features of the face are characteristically caucasoid. Oblique or slanted eyes are common in ancient representations, in a form immediately reminiscent of orientalizing culture; also frequent is the appearance of a prominent chin, which could hardly be considered mongoloid.
The beard and the mustache have diverse forms and are more or less abundant, in the representations that we have of these individuals (sculptures, in stone or clay, paintings, etc.); in great number of the cases they cover the cheeks, thing that does not happen in the mongoloid towns; in other cases they do not cover the cheeks, and even lack, but the features of the face and the prominent nose demonstrate us that we are in front of individuals of caucasoid race. For many of these cases we have to consider that, in Mesoamerica, there were very good shaving "razors", made of obsidian stone and that in the coasts of Ecuador and the North of Peru there are, archaeologically, very good razors of copper, bronze and silver, of identical form to those of ancient Greece and that still persists among us.
In the ancient city of Mexico -according to Cortés' letters- barbers abounded in the market; we consider that they should preferably shave heads, as is the custom in many present-day Arabs and as appears in The Thousand and One Nights, but they should also shave some beards.
Then, the Mochica huaco-portraits, that are counted by dozens of thousands, present us with faces frankly caucasoid in their immense majority, but without beards; nevertheless, it is there where most of those mentioned metallic razors are found. However, in not very few huacos appear individuals provided with a good mustache, even very long and rolled in spiral form, which must have required some artifice to maintain it thus (let's say, at least, rubber or a wire in its interior), but the beard is missing, which would be obligatory, by the existence of such a mustache, and that undoubtedly had to be carefully shaved.
At other times, the beard is very neat, trimmed in the shape of a point and even in three points or pearls, so it must have been well cared for.
Naturally, these bearded individuals do not form populations, properly speaking, but must have been ruling minorities and, therefore, preferably represented in sculptures and paintings. In this respect we can remember that, in a constant form, the old chroniclers of the conquest tell us that the indigenous ruling class, their nobles, were whiter than the individuals of the people. There is no lack of references according to which they were "as white as we are". This has been completely forgotten in the face of the interpretative image that pretends to make us believe that all the indigenous people were uniformly mongoloid.
The current study of these individuals, of the descendants of that indigenous ruling class, seems somewhat difficult to make, since they - as we have said from the beginning - have mixed intensely with the conquistadors, and for the same reason have largely become a somewhat secondary stratum in the white ruling class, as happened with the Inca Garcilaso de la Vega and several other mestizos who thus figure in history.
However, there are present-day indigenous people who are culturally preserved as indigenous, who present characteristics
BEARD AND MOUSTACHE, IN ENGLISH COLUMBIA. According to Blanco Villalta: Cannibal Rites in America, p. 57. There are many reports of the existence of white and reddish-haired individuals in English Columbia, but we do not possess direct illustrations of them; on the other hand, in the masks of the various tribes of the region, the representations of the moustache and beard are very frequent, as seen in the present ones, of the canfbal ritual of the bellacoolas. From the American Museum of Natural History.
Caucasoid and do not seem to be mixed with the various races of the Spanish population. We have seen them in Bolivia and somewhat in Peru; they appear above all - and it seems - in the present ruling class of the Aymara-speaking Indians. They have no more beard and moustache than the common Indians, as they have continued to interbreed largely with Mongoloid natives, but they are often slightly lighter in color and their face is clearly Caucasoid in features: eyes of a light tea color - and not dark brown, as is common in most Bolivian Andean Indians - nose that stands out deeply, showing an aquiline shape and sometimes very straight; hair usually black and straight, although there are those who have dark brown and slightly wavy.
In addition to the zone of the high indigenous cultures, there are other American zones where the Caucasoids are present, in less developed cultures, but in any case already well evolved on the primitive cultural level or levels of the populations arrived by Bering. Among them is English Columbia, where we already know that the first travelers who visited the region indicate the abundant presence of individuals of white color and reddish hair, etc. Ancient material from the region has only just begun to be found, but in the present illustrations we have of the area, the beard and mustache painted on the ceremonial masks of most of the tribes of the region abound. The same Caucasoid human types that arrived in Mesoamerica and the northern coasts of South America have also arrived there, directly across the Pacific.
Then we have the North American Prairies, where the aquiline nose characterizes the ruling classes of the tribes of the Sioux linguistic family and several others, such as the Pauni. In South America, this element seems to be quite scarce in the Amazon and Orinoco jungle region, but in any case, some representatives are found in the photographs of the indigenous people of the region.
2. Men with beards and aquiline noses in Mexico.
In the Mexican and then the Mayan region, is where in the
In indigenous America we find a more abundant representation of men with beards and mustaches, as well as generally aquiline noses, which correspond to ancient sculptures, engravings, paintings on ceramics and in the Codices.
The best known and most abundant of these illustrations refers to the god and at the same time historical personage called Quetzalcoatl, who in almost total form appears with moustaches and a wide beard that covers the cheeks, so that this beard is not Mongolian. Sometimes it has been wanted to see in that personage thus represented the figure of a Viking warlord, but the fact is disproved in advance, by the discovery made by L . Séjourné of a ceramic bowl, painted with the representation of the head of Quetzalcoatl broadly bearded, on one side, and on the other, the hieroglyphic signifying his name; the bowl belongs to the culture of Teotihuacan II, which means directly, the time of Christ or very soon after.
The historical character named Quetzalcoatl is one of the kings of the Toltec civilization, later than the god by a thousand years, roundly (the data we have about that vary somewhat). It has been tried to make of him a kind of American prophet similar to Christ, with a similar humanistic preaching, but there would be much to talk about, so we leave it aside. Other authors try to reduce to us all the representations of bearded men in Mexico, to the only representation of Quetzalcoatl; for that, they have to ignore other innumerable unrelated illustrations.
Long before the first representations of Quetzalcoatl appeared, in the Archaic culture of the Valley of Mexico there are archaic clay figurines, which present men with beards and mustaches and whose antiquity surpasses even the millennium before the Era; we have several illustrations in this regard and we particularly reproduce one from Tlatilco, where the Olmec influence already appears, which represents a man with a face divided vertically into two parts: on one side the face is smooth and with an oblique eye without fold, the other side has the round eye and appears provided with beard and abundant mustache, marked with incisions; the nose is prominent and straight.
More important is the Olmec culture, which influences the
THE PRESENCE OF BEARDS IN PRECLASSIC MEXICO. Statuette from Tlatilco, Valley of Mexico, about 800 years BC. It presents the face divided in two faces: the one on the left with beard and mustache, the one on the right with oblique non-Mongolian eye, because it does not have a fold. According to M. Covarnibias: Indigenous Art of Mexico and Central America, fig. 6.
Valley of Mexico, but which developed much more towards the area of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Veracruz, part of the Pacific coast, etc. It is no longer an apparently peasant culture like the Archaic culture of the Valley of Mexico, but rather it is a
great state culture, with cities and great monuments, many of them made of stone. This culture developed in some places until around the time of Christ, but its main cities disappeared before, as is the case with San Lorenzo and La Venta. The origin of this culture, which seems to have emerged already fully formed at least around the 15th century B.C., and which has been considered by several authors as the Mother Culture of the later Mesoamerican civilizations, is unknown. We do not believe this. For us, there are at least two strong later influences, of oceanic origin, in the area of Mesoamerica.
Dr. R. Heine-Geldern, of Vienna, one of today's leading champions of the trans-Pacific route for the origin of indigenous civilizations, compared this culture with the Chinese Shang Dynasty, which would have exerted its influences around 1200 B.C.E.. This has been followed by several authors, among whom we often find "praiseworthy" efforts to find Mongolian features in absolutely Caucasoid bearded faces. We completely deny that, without denying, by the way, that some Olmec figures have mongoloid features, but they are the fewest. Most of them directly represent Caucasoid type individuals of armenoid race, with beards, mustache and big aquiline nose, as well as a prominent chin. Other figures show us faces of frankly black type; the main of them are huge sculptures of heads made in stone, which exceed well over two meters in diameter.
We will show an important detail to see the non-Chinese origin of this culture. The ear ornaments in the form of a large flattened spool, among the Incas, called orejones, by the Spanish (in Quichua they are called pacu), are the main and most constant distinctive of the nobility in the American Indian civilizations. They have even spread to areas of less developed culture. Their oldest forms, small, are in Elam and Mesopotamia around 3000 B.C. The oldest known large form is found in a gold pectoral from the treasure of Mycenae, found by Schliemann, around 1600 B.C., with Egyptian and Oriental details. In America, from 1500 B.C. they are already found as a badge of the ruling classes. Later (there are no such ancient representations), they are found in the
India, Indochina and Indonesia. In Burma, until today. Well, the ears never appear in China, least of all in the Shang culture, but they are constant in Olmec representations of characters.
In all that we deal with now and in the following, we must not forget that we are undoubtedly referring to individuals of the ruling class and their gods, in some cases, but not to the dominated people, who should preferably be Mongoloid or rather Amurian-Mongoloid.
The oldest cultural level of the Olmec civilization is represented by the San Lorenzo culture. It consists of the remains of a great city that seems to have been destroyed around 800 B.C., and that would have begun around 1250 B.C., but unfortunately we have not obtained illustrations referring to that phase of the Olmec culture. The oldest illustrations that we have obtained in this respect, correspond to the phase of La Venta, another city that existed from 800 to 400 B.C. and that disappeared in the last mentioned date. Other illustrations of the same age, at least, are found in the region of Oaxaca, in the remains of the city called Monte Albán I, territory of the later Zapotec culture; they would go back to the years 800 or 600 B.C., according to diverse authors.
We will begin with Monte Albán I, where there is a series of stelae sculpted in rather rough but naturalistic bas-relief, representing individuals called dancers, because of the positions in which they are. It is important to say that these stelae are found in a building of that time, but that they do not correspond to the culture of the time but have been used again; they must come from an earlier building, whose date cannot be determined.
All the human figures shown in these stelae, of complete persons and with some hieroglyphic signs attached, show in their faces the typical features of the amurians that we have been seeing, as will be noticed in the illustrations. Some of them have a fairly full beard, although most of them do not, so they correspond to Amurian-Mongoloid people. Undoubtedly, a previous absorbed population, but which had already ascended socially, since it is assumed that they are priests.
BEARDED MAN, ON A STELA FROM MONTE ALBAN I. It is from 800 to 600 BC. Type called "dancer", because of his pose. His human type seems Amurian and not Caucasoid, arrived by the Pacific. The beard is very evident. According to Paul Westheim: Ancient Art of Mexico.
Dealing with La Venta, we have a poor reproduction of a clay figurine, only the head, which we present from the front and profile. The most surprising thing about this figure is the presence of a complete helmet of undoubtedly classical Greek type, with complete coverage of the head and its sides and a
The person represented here is absolutely caucasoid, we would say Greco-Anatolian, with a broad beard, straight nose and eyes formed by two points.
It follows the famous figure of the Olmec "El Luchador", in which many authors want to see in him a mongoloid character, but he is classically an anatolian of armenoid racial type, with wide mustaches and a good beard, the nose is broken and the head is clearly shaved. This magnificent sculpture must have been made using a living, full-body model - a fact that is demonstrated by the treatment of the muscles - although it is generally supposed that this resource was first used in Greece.
We move on to Stela 2 from La Venta, Tabasco, carved in basalt and measuring 3,5m3,5 \mathrm{~m} . high. It is partly worn, but we present a good drawing made by Covarrubias. On it there are at least three bearded Caucasoid personages. The main character shows an aged individual, with a large headdress (his body is corroded), large ears, a large Caucasoid beard, and a large beard.
A HELMET OF GREEK-ANATOLIAN TYPE, ON A BEARDED OLMEC FIGURINE. The representation of the helmet expressed is clear, even more so considering that the front end of the helmet is broken. The human face represented has an abundant beard, of cacucasoid type. According to Drucker: La Venta. Tabasco. A Study of Olmec Ceramics and Art. Figures separated from a set of statuette heads, plates 28 and 29.
and a fierce armenoid nose. No one in good faith can pretend to find anything mongoloid about him.
There are other very numerous representations of bearded personages, in the Olmec civilization of La Venta, which we will not detail. This is enough to enter into the necessary series of comments and then continue with the same culture in other regions.
It appears as manifest and evident that the main bearers of the Olmec culture have been these bearded personages with prominent aquiline nose, manifestly belonging to the Caucasoid Armenoid race, that do not show mongoloid characters. When the beard is missing, the common presence of the shape of the nose shows that, or they shaved (with obsidian blades) or, already crossed with mongoloids, had
BEARD AND NOSE, IN THE OLMEC CIVILIZATION. Stela 2 from La Venta, Tabasco, high 3,5m3,5 \mathrm{~m} . and 1.8 wide. According to M. Covarrubias: Arte Indígena de México y Centroamérica, fig. 27. Despite being worn, three bearded figures can be seen. The main figure has a large Caucasian armenoid nose, impossible to be considered Mongolian.
lost the beard. The shape of the hair cannot be seen, as it is usually covered with large headdresses or shaved, as in "El Luchador".
Evidently, this is a new racial element, which did not exist before in America, that is, they did not come through the Bering route, but through the transpacific route and were already bearers of a developed urban culture. Their date of entry in America, of course, must be some centuries before the time in which we find them abundantly represented, that is to say, at least in the middle of the second millennium B.C. (1500 B.C.). We will try to find out where they could have come from.
Culturally, we are in the second Bronze Age of the Old World. The Shang culture of China was just beginning - or had begun very shortly before - but was still confined to the interior of the Yellow River and did not reach the sea (this would happen around 1200 B.C.). At that time, the Olmecs had already begun their extensive development in the city of San Lorenzo. Therefore, their influence in the origin of the Olmec culture has to be discarded completely, as well as the presence of individuals with the armenoid aquiline nose.
Now we have another apparent difficulty. We have said that, at that time, we are fully in the Middle Bronze Age, both in China and in Mesopotamia, India and Egypt, as well as Crete and Greece, but in the Olmec civilization the use of any metal was not known. Metals, in the Mesoamerican region, only began to be known at the end of the first millennium AD. This fact has served more than one opponent of the transpacific influences for the region we are dealing with well.
But we love to find annoying buts; it happens that in the Olmec civilization we find numerous ceramic vessels that imitate earlier metal forms. We deal with that extensively in our work America in World Prehistory, so we basically refer to it. Nevertheless, we have something to say here.
An important detail is that, in several Olmec reliefs, there are very well represented belt brooches, whose origin can only be metallic, although at the time they were made in
What happens, then, that no metal object appears in the Olmec ruins?
Quite simply, we believe that this happened. By transpacific way, from the region of Indochina-Indonesia (we suppose that, directly or indirectly from its derivations, the civilization of Somron-seng of Indochina - from 1800 B.C. - had much to do with it; naturally it does not present Chinese influences, because we are before the Shang, the Olmecs originally knew the metals. had much to do with it; naturally, it does not present Chinese influences, since we are before the Shang), the Olmecs originally knew metals, that is to say, they were directly in that second Bronze Age; but among the navigators who arrived then (traders, above all) there was no artisan who knew metallurgy. Naturally and inevitably, this circumstance produced the loss of knowledge and use of metals. Undoubtedly, some metal objects arrived with the Olmecs, but there was no one who could reproduce them; therefore, such objects had to be reproduced in ceramic, stone, leather, wood, etc., where they preserved their forms. Artisans knowledgeable in the metallurgy of bronze, copper, silver and gold, more than a thousand years later, arrived on the coasts of Ecuador and northern Peru - as we will see later - but among them there was no blacksmith who taught this metallurgy. The consequence was an inferior development of weapons in the indigenous civilizations. It would have been a different story if a blacksmith had arrived and the Aztecs and Incas had had iron weapons for their defense, not firearms, but simply iron spears and swords.
Unfortunately, we have very few illustrations of the metal objects found in Somron-seng, but even so, they are directly reminiscent of Earlier Asia, from Mesopotamia and Elam to the shores of the Mediterranean, not China. Nor do we have any human representation of that time, in the region, that would allow us to see if there, then, already had arrived the narigudo human beings. At least, there is a very important detail: in the few illustrations that we have of the place, there are two good big ears, which we do not know if they correspond to 1800 B.C. or to some centuries later. What is certain is that they did not exist at that time in China -nor at any other time.
later - but in Egypt and Greece, soon after. We suppose that it was in this region of Indochina-Indonesia that the small, Elamite orejones became of great size, influencing Egypt, on the one hand, and on the other, intensively, in America.
South Asian navigation at the time - and from several millennia before - was highly developed; navigators from the Eastern Mediterranean - via the Red Sea - and those from the Persian Gulf, undoubtedly reached the Indochina-Indonesia region intensively. In Crete and Egypt, around 1500 B.C., peacock feathers are painted, whose origin is in India and Indochina. In Crete, in a mural, a Bird of Paradise is painted, which is typical of New Guinea and neighboring islands. Shortly after, the monkeys of India appear with their Hindu, Sanskrit name in the Bible, and peacocks are mentioned in the same way.
Who were, at that time, the main navigators of these regions? Undoubtedly there is more than one people that does not appear in history, nor in archaeology yet, but the main ones - around 1500 B.C. - were the Canaanites (proto-Phoenicians), the Egyptians and the Cretans; in the South of Arabia, the Sabeans served as intermediaries for the navigation of the Mediterranean with the Far East. From the Persian Gulf we do not know anything else but that, at that time, there was an intense commercial navigation with points of South Asia that are not specified.
The Armenoids had spread widely and were already mixed with almost all the peoples mentioned; the Hittites are important and we already know that they are the Hittites of the Bible; in Anatolia, they were not navigators, as far as we know, but their commercial products were intensely spread thanks to the Phoenicians, especially their developed metallurgy. A detail: the Hittites were the inventors - as far as we know - of the two-headed eagle. Europe received it from them much later; in the meantime, it had widely arrived in America. It is found in recent times in English Columbia, in the Upper Archaic of Mexico, in Paracas and in Northwest Argentina, in the latter, painted on numerous ceramics.
There are two groups of peoples who must have had a preponderant aquiline nose. First, the Elamites of Persia,
on the southern side of Mesopotamia - which from before 3000 B.C. must have already had extensive trade with the Far East - and the Canaanites who, with the intermediary of their relatives - the Sabeans of Yemen - must have had a monopoly of trade from the eastern Mediterranean to the Far East. Cretans and Egyptians would participate, to a lesser degree, in that trade.
The Canaanites and their descendants, the historical Phoenicians, from earlier times were already intensely mixed with the Armenian race (being Semites in origin - the same as the Hebrews - they must have originally had a straight nose; later, their ruling classes acquired the aquiline nose); the same must have occurred with the Sabaeans of Yemen. Hence the frequent appearance of individuals with aquiline noses, due to the spread of trade to the East (there are still some in Indonesia) and America. With what has been said, we do not want to indicate in any way that they were the only ones that spread; on the contrary, we admit widely and necessarily that in those peoples of traders, who spread, there were important nuclei of individuals of other races, including Negroids (possibly, mestizos produced in the coasts of Eritrea with the Yemenites) and also Mongolians, that some centuries later began to expand widely by Indonesia and that also by the transpacific way they should arrive at the pre-Columbian America.
But the fundamental thing is that we can follow the track of what we are dealing with, by the presence of bearded individuals of caucasoid type provided with that big aquiline nose. She is not mongoloid in any way and this allows us to clarify things a little. In cultural facts we can follow the same path with many elements or traits, such as the two-headed eagle mentioned above, but in this work we are dealing with races and we have already said that we "hold on to the nose" as others, before, have held on to "the hair".
We return to the Olmecs and their derivations. The first god that seems to be well differentiated in the oldest statuettes and sculptures of Mexico is the God of Fire, Huehueteotl, who sometimes appears holding a brazier on his back and others holding it in front of him. His face, like that of Quetzalcoatl, is always provided at least with a fairly strong pearl and often has whiskers; his nose, in most of the sculptures, is a little bit like that of Quetzalcoatl.
In most cases, it is large and hooked, clearly armenoid; on the sides of its face, big ears are inevitable. Its first representations are in the vicinity of the thousand before Christ. We present a remarkable illustration of this God of Fire, from Veracruz, where the brazier is in front of the god, who is curled up in front of it. His face has a large beard, frankly of Phoenician type, of the Orientalizing period; the nose is large and aquiline and has, in addition, enormous ears.
In the archaeology of Europe and in the ethnography of Africa, the presence of a "brazier" like the one we are dealing with, generally carried on the head, is well known, but has never been associated with it. It is usually associated with a female figure and is sometimes made of metal; the "brazier" in these cases is called "source of offerings". It is probable that it is a goddess of the hearth fire and that, in America, it has been "patriarchalized". In that form it arrives until the NW. of Argentina, where we know, at least, two beautiful representations in stone of that god of the fire, with the brazier on the head.
We now turn to other cultures of Mexico. Naturally, they are later cultures. We will begin with the western coasts of that country, which include several states. There, for the most ancient times of its known archaeology, a culture has developed that lasted a very long time, on a primitive basis. It did not manage to receive the influence of the classical cultures of central Mexico, so that it did not have large cities or monuments, but it has left us thousands of clay statuettes, beautifully naturalistic style and sin\sin rebuscamientos, even, combined or complex forms of these statuettes, with scenes where there are dozens of characters. Such scenes, in clay, appear for the world archaeology for the first time, on the island of Cyprus, around 1500 BC.
The human type most frequently represented in these statuettes lacks beard and mustache, however both, well developed, are present in a statuette -which we reproduce- with a figure of caucasoid type. The other statuettes do not have beard and mustache, but their physiognomy is also caucasoid and consist of men and women of types H-5-6 of our classification, both with an elongated face, whose features remind us of the Polynesian statuettes of Easter Island; in
bearded god of Veracruz, Mexico. According to Alfonso Medellin Zenil: Unpublished Olmec Monoliths, plate 20. The author says: "The old god of fire from trench 3 of Laguna de los Cerros. 26 cm. high". That it is the God of Fire is evident, because of the brazier in front of him, but what interests us is his prominent caucasoid beard and his developed armenoid nose, features that in no way can be considered mongoloid. Properly, his face looks Phoenician.
all of them, the nose is very large and the general shape is very straight.
This culture has also known the metals in its origin, because there are very abundant forms of puzzles and stone axes whose shape completely imitates metallic prototypes. Most of them are made of copper and bronze, in the Mochica and Vicus cultures of the northern coast of Peru, whose first origins were found around the 5th century BC. The form of the stone and metal jigsaws of Vicús has its immediate relation with bronze jigsaws of Persia, already begun the last millennium B.C., while the axes are more similar to those of Ras-Shanra, in the Phoenician coast, of some centuries before.
We omit other things. In the Valley of Mexico, in the civilization of Teotihuacan, some individuals with beards appear, but in much smaller numbers than among the Olmecs. It is enough to remember the already mentioned Quetzalcoatl of Teotihuacan II, to demonstrate it. Then, the civilization of the historical Toltecs, of the city of Tula, also shows us some scarce bearded people, which is enough to demonstrate that they existed, although, apparently, they were disappearing by the more and more intense mixture with the mongolic elements of the place.
The same happens with the sculptures and other works of the Aztecs. Among them, the bearded personages -apart from the god Quetzalcoatl- are scarce, but they continue to exist until the conquest. Interesting is the figure of the Aztec hero Tlacaelel, true "Black Pope", behind the throne of three or four emperors (he lived almost one hundred years and was the main creator of the intensive human sacrifices, as a political measure); in a drawing after the conquest, he appears with a good beard and mustache. Then we have the stone representations of the Tiger Knights and Eagle Knights, beautifully sculpted, to the point that in front of one of these sculptures, sent to Europe by Cortés, the sculptor Rodin declared that he could not have done it better. In all the sculptures of this kind that we know of, although the face lacks a beard, it is completely Caucasoid and shows a straight or curved nose.
Among the Zapotecs of Oaxaca, in the south of Mexico, there are a few large clay sculptures representing men with a good pearl; their faces are not very large.
FIGURE OF CLAY, WESTERN MEXICO, 300 to 950 AD. Character representing a warrior. From the Mexican Art Exhibition, Paris, 1962. His prominent beard needs no further comment, his nose is Caucasoid, etc. From Historama, Ne 48, Vol. IV, p. 178. CODEX.
A MIXTEC AND A TOLTEC KING, WITH A LARGE BEARD. Codex Nuttal. Taken from Pre-Columbian America, by J. Norton Leonard and the editors of TIME-LIFE books, p. 74. The Mixtec king 8 Deer and his Toltec ally 4 Tiger, at a meeting, both well bearded.
mongoloid yy , likewise, his nose is curved or straight. Where individuals with a broad beard and the well-known curved nose are once again abundant, is in the paintings of the Mixtec codices. In them, even the figure of the God of the rain, Tlaloc, appears with a beard, something not frequent among the Aztecs. In another Codex, where the Mixtec history is told, we have abundant characters with beards, starting with the often repeated figure of King Eight Deer Tiger Claw, about six centuries before the conquest.
3. The bearded men among the Mayas and their ancestors
We are in front of another territory where there are abundant representations of beards and mustaches as well as large and aquiline noses. The latter are widely preserved until the times of the conquest, as can be seen, observing the human figures, of men and women, as well as the
women, represented in the three surviving Maya codices. Of these, the Dresden Codex predates the conquest by no less than five hundred years.
The oldest illustration that we know of this region, in which we see a bearded figure - we do not know if it is unique or not - comes from the culture of Las Charcas, on the coast of Guatemala, located between 2000 and 1500 B.C., preferably closer to the latter date. There, a new culture, with abundant ceramics, appears to be related to the contemporary culture of the central coasts of Ecuador, with no local antecedents in either region. The locality of the finding is called Kaminaljuyú, name that means "Hills of the dead", in Quiché language.
We reproduce this illustration. It shows the upper part of a clay figure, modeled up to its arms; the head presents a face of triangular termination, which is not Mongolian; its eyes are straight, the same as the nose, of type F we would say; it shows a central beard that seems well cared for and trimmed at its base. Naturally, it is not an individual of armenoid type, but rather Indonesian, something very abundantly represented in the Valley of Mexico, from the first levels of the Archaic culture.
We move on to later times in the same region. In Kaminaljuyú we then find Stela 10, of which we reproduce a developed drawing; in it there are three personages: below, a woman with incomplete face, above two men with big and aquiline nose, the second of which has a mask (as it is seen, by the presence of a non-human tusk) and abundant beard of caucasoid type. The first personage has in his hand a complicated flint axe, whose form is an evident metallic copy, in spite of the fact that there are no metals in the area, then. The second has on his forehead a plume of feathers, reminiscent of the peacock of Crete. At the bottom, in front of the woman, an important hieroglyphic text that has not been translated.
We move on to the Classic Maya culture, commonly called the Old Empire, whose main cities are Palenque, Copán, Tikal, etc. This Mayan culture of the Old Empire begins at least three hundred years after the Era.
We present here one of the first drawings made of the reliefs of Palenque, in Chiapas, Mexico. It shows us a kind of lying quadrangular stela, in which four seated personages appear, in front of an altar; all of them have armenoid noses and lines of what seems to be a simple mustache, but that the opponents of that idea could say that they are wrinkles of the face; this is disproved, by the fact that one of them shows a good caucasoid beard, at the same time that its nose is the most prominent.
There follows another series of figures of the Ancient Maya Empire, so abundant that it is impossible for us to detail them, for which reason we have to refer only to a few. Moreover, we should not consider that these bearded individuals were the dominant ones in the population of the Old Maya Empire. That majority -as now in their descendants- was clearly of the Amurian type.
PREMAYA BAS-RELIEF, WITH BEARDED CHARACTER. Stela N^(2)10N^{2} 10 from Kaminaljuyú, Guatemala. The abundant beard needs no further mention. The personage has a strange tusk. In the figure next to it, the personage has in his hand a slex axe, whose form imitates an earlier bronze axe.
mongoloid, well represented in Imbelloni's description of the Isthmian race and in sculptures, reliefs, etc., of the time.
We will deal with a clay vessel of this period, which shows a kind of excavated panel, with three characters: first, one wearing a large zoomorphic mask, so that it is impossible to recognize its human type; second, a character with head and face of the type that we can consider Amurian-Mongoloid, although having a rather prominent nose; all the characters are full body and sitting cross-legged.
Naturally, we are particularly interested in the second character. His face, seen in profile as in the other characters, shows a large aquiline nose and a very aggressive chin, at the end of which appears a well protruding pear; on the upper lip and falling sideways to return then upwards at its termination, appears a mustache that in no way could be supposed to be mongoloid. For us, this individual clearly represents an H-7 of our classification; its absolutely Caucasoid aspect cannot be disputed by anyone.
BAJORRELIEVE MAYA DE PALENQUE, according to an old drawing. One of the four personages represented has a mustache and wide beard; the others seem to have mustaches, although a contrary interpretation could say that they are wrinkles. All have prominent noses. According to Pierre Honoré: The Legend of the White Dloses.
Another important figure is found on Stela 11 from Seibal, Mexico, reproduced by Spinden, which shows a personage whose head is covered by a helmet with a chinstrap (Greco-Anatolian feature), with a large armenoid nose and developed mustache; he is an H-5, at least from our classification; his general appearance is completely Assyrian-Hitian. On the chest, it shows a stylized form of the Persian god Ahura-Mazda, very frequent in Mayan sculptures and reliefs.
We move on to another Mayan sculpture, this time made of wood, extraordinary for its state of preservation. Apparently, it corresponds to the 7th century or a little earlier, from the Old Mayan Empire. It is the representation in bulk of a squatting personage with arms crossed, whose head and face present two notable features: first, a large mustache rolled up at the end, which in no way can be interpreted as belonging to an individual of Mongol origin; then, on the sides of the head, rolled forward, on each side, a ram's horn like the one engraved on the sides of the head of Alexander the Great Bicorne and in the sculptures of Moses. Naturally, the rams did not exist in Mexico, and what has been said must be a copy of a figure already made, arrived from the Vie.
PANEL EXCAVATED IN A MAYAN CULTURE VASE, where we see a central personage, with a pronounced type of the Prospector race, bearded and with a big nose. His moustache is remarkable; at his sides there is a masked personage and another with a fleeing mandible/bulla, similar to the "idiots" of Monte Albán 1. This Prospector human type is not pointed out by any author as an independent racial type and bearer of the high culture in the Mesoamerican zone, but here it is very clear; its Caucasoid aspect -or better, anatolian- is indisputable. According to Hasso von Winning: A Maya "Old God" Efflgy Bowl, In: "The Masterkey", Vol. 34, April-June, 1963.
World. Despite such details, we have seen a description of this sculpture in which he is presented as a Mongolian type of priest. We do not know whether to admire more the ignorance of the author or his total blindness before the vision of the facts.
We skip over several other illustrations we have and move on to a tripod Maya vase from Kaminaljuyú, from the Maya culture level, later than the one discussed before, regarding that area. The illustration shows it without further explanation of its shape. However, it is worthwhile to stop here, because very important interpretations have been made about it.
The Austrian researcher whom we already know, R. Heine-Geldern, has compared the shape of these ceramic vessels with others from China, typical of the first Han dynasty (beginning at the end of the third century B.C.); their presence in America, the first time they were used in the Americas.
MUSTACHE ON A MAYA BAS-RELIEF. Human figure in bas-relief, from the stela 11 of Seibal, Yucatan, of the Mayas of the New Empire. It represents an individual who, by his nose and other features is not mongoloid but a white of armenoid or asiroid race, as it is clear by the form of his aquiline nose. The helmet that he wears even has a brick-guard, which is native and typical of the Ancient Mediterranean, even, let us say, Corinthian. According to Spinden.
is a few centuries later, in the Teotihuacan culture, from where they spread to the Mayan region. On our part we add -we have not published it before- that they appear in
LARGE MOUSTACHE WITH SPIRAL TERMINATION, FROM THE ANCIENT MAYA. Old Empire, approximately from the V to VII centuries after the Era, Mexico. It has two amazing features: a large curled mustache, whose form is never found in the Mongolian race and if only in white races of the Mediterranean, Italian type of mustache today; on the side of the head, at the top, cuemos in the form of camero's horn, rolled forward, as occurs in the representations of Alexander the Great, and the symbol of the Law, in the Bible. Height 33 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Bolivia in the culture that we call Mojocoya, in a period not earlier than the middle of the first millennium of the Era; they are presented with the same general shape (the feet are smooth) and even, in some cases, with the same shape of lid, although without the "agarradera". These pieces of the Mojocoya culture are generally made of ceramic, but several of them (one with lid) are made of very finely polished stone.
We said that Heine-Geldern compared these Mayan and Teotihuacan ceramic tripods with others of bronze from the Han dynasty of China, but he "forgot" to tell us (we do not like that kind of forgetfulness, that is why we point it out) that the same form of tripods existed in Etruria, at least since the 6th century B.C. (they must come from the Orientalizing period, but we do not know them elsewhere). As in China, they were made of bronze, so from there they must have reached China. Naturally, this diffusion had to take place via the South Asian sea route, so they must have reached Indochina or Indonesia first. Consequently, it is most likely that the relationship is with the latter region and not directly with China.
Let us warn something: we do not pretend that it was the Etruscans who brought the shape of these tripods to the Far East, but that (unless they were directly from the Orientalizing culture) the Phoenicians or Corinthian Greeks (colony of Naucratis in the Nile Delta, from where they traded with the East by way of the Red Sea. Their helmets and clamid capes spread at least as far as Hawaii) took them there. We have seen in a museum in Europe, a wooden tripod with this shape, from Micronesia.
We return to the Maya tripod. It has in its lid and as coronation a handle modeled in the form of a human head, with round eyes and great aquiline nose, at the same time that the open mouth in a hollow; to its sides, a remarkable large mustache extends and rolled up in a complete spiral, that must have had rubber or an internal frame, to hold itself. It is obvious to clarify that, in no way could such a mustache be considered as belonging to an individual of yellow race.
We move on to see another Mayan sculpture, in clay. At the end of the Old Empire, thousands of statuettes were made in a style that we could call tanagras (we suppose, even, a relationship between the
HUMAN FACE WITH LARGE BIG BIGOTS, crowning a tripod vase, Maya. From the Linden Museum, Kunst der Maya, plate 18. From Kaminaljuyú; high 34,3cm34,3 \mathrm{~cm} ; Esperanza phase, 200 to 500 AD. National Museum of Guatemala. The form of the tripod copies an Etruscan bronze form, which reaches to Han China. The big whiskers are of a completely Caucasoid type, in no way Mongoloid.
with the Greek Tanagras), representing men and women -even of the people, in their labors- but mainly characters; among them, those with beards and/or mustaches are relatively abundant. We are now interested in an illustration published by Ignacio Bernal, which we reproduce, showing someone who appears to be a monarch seated on his throne; he has a Caucasoid face and a good beard, although quite short.
Of interest now is the detail of the throne on which he is seated and which, to the eye, was made of wood. Its shape is round, with a raised back. We do not know of any similar form of seats -not only thrones- coming from any of the great civilizations of the Old World, although there are similar ones in black Africa, also made of wood. This allows us some interpretative comments.
At present, the region of the Horn of Africa - consisting of Eritrea, the Somalias and Abyssinia - is almost exclusively occupied by Camitic peoples, among whom, several centuries before Christ, the wedge of Semitic peoples was introduced, forming the present Amharic-Typtians, whose language is of Semitic-Sudarabic origin. Before the Semitic invasions took place there - and the previous one, Camitic - the area must have been occupied by peoples of true black race, who later became Camitic. The Sabeans, maritime traders then, from before the last millennium B.C., must have had intense trade with Eritrea and, by that way, a series of cultural elements entered the black peoples that later spread in Africa, including Cretan cultural traits (such as the Goddess of the Serpents). Among those elements must have been -or were formed locally- the thrones we are dealing with; having been spread by the Sabeans to the East, they ended up reaching America. The Olmec giant heads, with features of mestizos of true blacks, must have come by the same route and, even, with diffusion of human persons.
We move on to see a Mayan stone mask, reproduced, from Tikal, in its classic Chikanel period. It is quite small and we took it from a Haberland publication. We are interested here in one detail: in its jaw and on the sides of the mouth, it has a series of holes, which undoubtedly served
to introduce in them tufts of hair with which the beard and mustache were represented, a fact that can be proved if we compare with some bronze sculptures of Ife, Nigeria; in them we find the same and it is recognized that use. This confirms what we have said before about the cultural traits found in Africa and America.
We are also interested in a great sculpture of Copan, the Stela C, very often reproduced in photographs. It is always pretended that its face represents a Mongolian face, because of the slanted eyes; but it is enough to see the illustration that we include, to verify that those eyes are not Mongolian but of the type of the Orientalizing culture.
CLASSIC MAYAN CHARACTER WITH BEARD. His face is caucasoid, as can be seen. Sculpture in clay, 22 cm. high; the personage is seated on a circular wooden throne, common form in Africa and that had diffusion in America. According to Ignacio Bemal: The Mexican National Museum of Anthropology, Lám. 105.
The face has a large beard, which extends down to below the cheeks, which also cannot be claimed to be Mongolian. The mustache is missing; the cheekbones are quite prominent, so it is possible to sustain a Mongolian mixture in the character, although he is basically Caucasoid. The nose is destroyed and, on the sides of the face, there are quite large ears.
We move on to a small figurine, of which only the head remains, found in Sesis, Guatemala, according to Eduardo Seler and reproduced in the well-known work of Henri Beuchat, Manuel d'Archeologie Américaine, p. 372. It is a complete human head, with a large armenoid nose, very well sculpted eyes in a very natural way and with large upper malomarginalis folds, not mongoloid but caucasoid; wide mustache slightly raised at the ends; the beard, which necessarily had to exist in the presence of such a mustache, is shaved. The whole physiognomy of this face is absolutely Europoid yy , to us, since we saw it the first time, it directly reminds us of Marshal Hindenburg's face. Readers will be able to judge for themselves.
We possess many other illustrations of bearded sculptures, paintings, etc., of the Old Maya Empire, but we cannot reproduce or comment on all of these. Consequently, we pass briefly to the New Maya Empire; it developed later in the Yucatan and, because of internecine wars, had dissolved into a series of small local kingdoms about a century before the Spanish conquest. The authors of this New Empire -we are told- were Toltec groups from Mexico, who entered as mercenaries at the service of local kings who fought among themselves; they ended up taking over power and, naturally, mixed a lot with the older Maya, whom they dominated. In particular, in the city of Chichén Itzá there is a relationship between its architectural details and sculptures and those of Tula, in central Mexico. That relationship is undoubted, but there is a problem, to know which of the two cities is the oldest. Until now it has been assumed that Tula, but the archaeologist of Mayan origin Piña Chan maintains that Chichén Itzá is older and that it has influenced Tula.
HOLES TO PLACE A BEARD, in a Mayan mask of Tikal. According to W. Haberland: Cultures of Indigenous America, plate 27. It is small, of green stone, with shell eyes and teeth; tomb 85 of Tikal. Chikanel phase. What is interesting are the small holes in its lower part, which undoubtedly served to place groups of hairs simulating the beard, a fact that can be proven with the comparison of some sculptures of lie, Nigeria, in which the same thing is found and is recognized for that use.
We leave that -because for now it is unsolvable- and dedicate ourselves briefly to the bearded individuals depicted then. We reproduce an illustration showing columns
BARBADA SCULPTURE OF COPAN. Stela C. Photo by Fntz Wellermann, in Rubín de la Borbolla, Honduras, etc. The beard is abundant and the eyes are a derivation of the Orientalizing period of the Ancient Mediterranean.
of a great temple of Chichén Itzá, of square section, where three warriors appear sculpted in bas-relief; all have large noses, straight on the sides, while the one in the center appears curved at its base, while the character is provided with a large beard of Caucasian type.
Then, in a relief of the so-called Castillo -and that is a great pyramid- of Chichén Itzá, we find a relief where two men appear with an abundant beard, also caucasoid, at the same time that the second of them presents us with a curved armenoid nose. The author from whom we take this illustration, W. Krickeberg, tells us: "Snail man and spider man as bearers of the sky". It is something like Atlas, holding the Earth (which must be a later adaptation). Naturally, they are mythical figures.
In the intermediate region of Central America, the features of the beard, the mustache and the curved nose are frequently present, but we cannot extend more here and we include only a ceramic from Costa Rica, in the shape of a "botellón" modeled in its entire body, in the form of a complete human figure. The head of this figure is large and forms something like a handle, while in its lower part there is an extensive beard. The figure is somewhat dark and the nose is not very clear, although it is clear enough to see that it is large and hunched.
4. Men with beards and aquiline noses, in the Andean zone.
It is on the coasts of Ecuador where we can see the oldest forms of transpacific oceanic influences in indigenous America -as far as we know- according to current archaeological reports. But it is possible and probable that we lack the corresponding data, because it is still little studied that the western coasts of Mexico present us with facts of the same antigūedad, and even, it could be, of a slightly greater antigūedad.
This corresponds to the fact that there seem to be two transpacific routes of entry into America, following the sea currents. Indeed, if we examine a map, we see that there are two important sea currents that, from the western Pacific, follow the ocean currents,
EUROPEAN TYPE FACE, WE WOULD SAY GERMAN, WITH MAGNIFICENT MUSTACHE. Terracotta figure, found in Sesis, Guatemala, according to E. Seler, Alterthumer aus dor Guatemala, reproduced by H. Beuchat in his Manuel d'Archeologle Américalne, p. 372. There is nothing mongoloid about it, least of all because of the developed and trimmed mustache, as well as its necessary complement, the beard, which is shaved. Her physical features denote an armenoid racial mixture, as can be seen by the aquiline nose.
are directed towards America. The first to the North is the so-called Japanese Current or Kuro Siwo (Black), which starts in the North of the Philippines, passes along the coasts of Japan and from there continues in a curved form towards the Vancouver area, continues along the coasts of the United States and the North of Mexico; over the central coasts of Mexico it turns around and heads towards the Philippines, once again. The second path - which we have been almost the only ones to consider - is the Equatorial Counter Current, which leaves the northern zone of the Celebes Islands and the southern Philippines; from there it goes straight towards the coasts of Ecuador and Colombia, brushing a little the coasts of northern Peru, Piura, where it collides with the cold Humboldt current, coming from the south, running along those South American coasts.
In a logical interpretation, the northern current of the
bAJORRELIEVES REPRESENTING WARRIORS, on columns at Chichén Itzá. They correspond to the so-called New Empire, when a Toltec invasion ended up dominating the ancient Maya. All of them have big noses; the warrior in the center shows a big beard, not Mongolian. They carry large curved maces in their hands and their feathered headdresses are reminiscent of the ancient Persians; the same is present in the Mochicas.
MEN WITH BEARDS HOLD THE SKY. Relief of the Castle of Chichen ltza, according to W. Krickeberg: Myths and Legends of the Aztecs, Incas, Mayas and Mulscas, p. 91. The author tells us: "Snail man and spider man as bearers of the sky". It is something like Atlas holding the Earth (which must be a later adaptation). Both have Caucasoid-type beards; the second, a stooped armenoid nose.
Pacific must have been the first known, as it is assumed that they must have first tried to follow the coasts, but history is not always very logical and some daring adventurer could have launched first, from the aforementioned area of Indonesia, "to see what was out there where the sun rose".
In the way of arrival to America by the Japanese Current, we have the undoubted fact that the navigators who followed that way touched the American coasts, at least at three points: the coasts of English Columbia, where the culture of its inhabitants shows us numerous traits that they must have arrived by that route, although not necessarily from Japan but rather from the Philippines; then, the coasts of San Francisco, where in an area of preservation of very primitive cultures appear traits of high culture and, even, words absolutely of origin in Indonesian languages - like the word lima, to designate the numeral five, as well as mano - and, finally, the fundamental point of arrival, the west of Mexico, where the mouth of the Balsas River and Acapulco seem to be the main points.
The second way, that of the Equatorial Countercurrent, touches on the
pottery from costa rica, with personave barbado. From: National Museum of Costa Rica, Treasures of Pre-Columbian Art of Costa Rica, Piece of the Month, July 1971. It is supposed to represent the Old God of Fire, Mexican, but what is important is his abundant beard and his non-mongoloid face.
Ecuadorian and Colombian coasts. We have that the same influences must have arrived by the other way, because among the Indians of Panama the same word that we have just mentioned is used, under the form of atali (one hand, five), which corresponds to primitive forms of the Proto-Indonesian languages.
In the coasts of Ecuador we have the culture of Valdivia, whose first antiquity would go back -according to the last information- until 3400 before the Era. It presents us a ceramic with vessels of a primitive type, decorated mainly with incisions and, at the same time, some clay figurines, almost all of them feminine, well developed and with complicated hairstyles, that to us and to several other authors, remind us of old Egyptian hairstyles. These statuettes do not correspond to the most ancient epochs of the culture, but in any case they begin to appear well before 2500 BC.
Dr. Betty Meggers has compared the pottery, vessels or, better, fragments according to their ornaments, of this culture, with the one supposed to be contemporary of Jomon, in Japan. The similarities of these incised decorations are striking and have been accepted by many researchers. In fact, the relationship was first discovered by the Uruguayan archaeologist Raúl Campá Soler, to whom the Ecuadorian Estrada and, later, Dr. Meggers signed. As its first discoverer is not mentioned at present, it is considered to be a discovery of North American research.
We accept, we have no doubt, the relationship with the Jomón pottery of 3000 BC, but not the interpretation of the author, who assumes a direct relationship with a group of pre-Japanese fishermen dragged by the sea currents, who would have settled at the site and taught the forms and decoration of their ceramics to the local natives. The same author has to tell us that the Valdivia pottery contemporary to Jomón is more developed than its possible original source. We clarify that the inhabitants of Jomón were also fishermen and that their origin, as far as their pottery is concerned, is much older, since pottery dating back to 8000 BC was found in the area, a figure that allows us to include them among the oldest in the world.
The pottery of Jomon prior to 3000 is related in its forms and decorations to Siberian Asiatic and neighboring coasts, and is very different in forms and patterns. Around 3000 B.C., new forms appear there in the pottery and in its incised decorations; they are the related ones. The clay statuettes of Jomon, on the other hand, have no relation, at any time, with those of Valdivia, least of all in the exquisite female hairstyles.
An important detail that appears in the Jomón ceramics, only around 3000 B.C., is the presence of ornaments printed with the edges of a comb shell (Pectem). This detail is present in the oldest levels of the Valdivia culture. It was also ceramic decorated in this way; it is generally called cardial ceramic (from cardium, heart, in Latin). It is present in all the oldest ceramics from the shores of the Mediterranean, starting from its eastern zone, and from dates
EARLY OCEANIC INFLUENCES IN AMERICA. According to Gordon R. Willey: An Introduction to American Archaoology, fig. 5-16. According to Zeballos and Holm. From the Valdivia culture, around 3000 B.C. Almost all are female and represent a small human type with delicate features and beautiful hairstyles. Their features correspond to the Indonesian-Mediterranean racial type.
before 5000 B.C. We suppose that the same must have occurred on the coasts of South Asia, as far as Indonesia, since in a museum in Holland we have seen fragments of pottery of this origin, but we do not note the details, since at that time we were not concerned with the subject.
Now, in other words, from the above explanation, our explanation is as follows. From Indonesia, where this cardial pottery would have existed a little before 3000 B.C., there would have been navigations that took its bearers, on the one hand, to Jomón and on the other, to America, where, thanks to its influence, the Valdivia culture was formed. In favor of it we present the following: the carriers of the Jomón culture would be the ainos, and nothing less similar to the human form presented by the ainos is what appears in the feminine statuettes of the Valdivia culture. The ainos are H-2-3 of our classification, as we already know well, and the statuettes present us with women of type F developed, that is, forms F-5-6. No relationship is possible between them and the ainos. They are Indonesian women.
It could be said that it is the representation of local human forms that would have assimilated the influences of Jomon, but the answer against that is simple. That human form did not exist from before in America and, in no way, could it have passed through Bering, among other things, because she
does not exist in North America, above Mexico. This human type is clearly Mediterranean-Indonesian; in the Valdivia figurines, for the first time in America, we have its undoubted presence in the continent.
In the Valley of Mexico, later their representation appears in numerous clay statuettes found in the Lower Archaic period, but which dominate especially in the Middle Archaic period; archaeologists call them "Pretty Lady". They also frequently have good hairstyles, while they already, practically always, wear ears, an element that is missing in Valdivia. A later form are the so-called "smiling heads" of the Gulf Coast area, pretotonacas, more developed and generally larger.
In South America, this human type is widespread. They form especially "pockets" in the Andean zone and in Amazonia, including Venezuela. They constitute an important part of the population of the Paracas culture of Peru and are absolutely dominant there, in the later Nazca culture; they are also found in Ecuador and Colombia, from where they penetrate into Venezuela. In the Amazon -at least for us- they are the ones that constitute the basic nucleus of the Guaranitupi and, probably, of the Arawak and Caribs; other peoples of proto-Amazonian culture: the Pano, Tacana, etc. present this type, in abundance. In Bolivia, they are a third of the pre-Columbian population of the Valleys (scarce in the Altiplano), according to the skulls that we have found; bearers of the culture that we call Nazcoid. In NW Argentina, they were and are the population of the Draconian culture and its current human survivals, passing through several other cultures. In Chile, they form "pockets" in Atacama and in the towns of Araucanian language, largely "Araucanized" yy , in the near South Argentina, they are the exclusive human type of the Araucanians of the tribe of the cacique Catriel, of whom in the Museum of La Plata there are about a hundred skulls, which allows us to say this.
In the Draconian or Aguada culture of NW Argentina, there are abundant clay statuettes (rarely in stone) representing this human type, with a slender body, fine and delicate face, almost entirely feminine. The hair is
arranged in an even more exquisite and complicated way than in the Valdivia statuettes and, very often, they are even arranged unequally on each side of the head, forming truly artistic ensembles.
We recently called this human type "Mediterranean-Indonesian"; according to that of being Mediterranean (from the name of the Mediterranean Sea, since they live mainly on its shores) they should have beards and mustaches, since they are Caucasoid, but this is lacking in the Indonesians and their American derivations. They are also quite abundant in India, especially in the South, where their individuals generally have some beard and mustache. It is most probable that, in their origin, they did not have much beard, but the feature intensified when migrating towards the Mediterranean and inversely, it was attenuated until disappearing, by Mongoloid mixture, in the Indochinese-Indonesian region; thus they arrived to the American lands.
We will return to the Ecuadorian coasts. The Valdivia culture was followed, around 1800 B.C., by the Machalilla culture, in which the statuettes are coarse and, at the same time, present H-type individuals, characterized by the scarcity of the representation of the forehead. Its derivations cover the base of the Andean cultures, they appear again among the historical Comechingones of Córdoba and have strong influences in the littoral. We do not know of any bearded figures.
In Ecuador, around 1500 B.C., the important Chorrera culture appears, of evident new trans-Pacific origin, due to the novel features of its ceramics. Among them, we are going to highlight only one: the vessel-silversmiths, which appear for the first time, we believe, in America. Here they are quite abundant; on the other hand, in Mesoamerica they exist -but in scarce numbers- a little later; in the northern coast of Peru they are very abundant, but from a later period. We do not know of any similar piece from China. The oldest and almost unique that we know of them in the Old World are found in the Phoenician region and in Cyprus, around 1500 B.C., the same period in which they appear in Ecuador.
All clay statuettes from this culture depict developed H-type individuals, often with armenoid noses, but without beards; they are of medium size and hollow, 252
made in molds, a Phoenician or better, Canaanite trait, as far as we know.
In the later Bahia culture and in other neighboring cultures, around 500 B.C., new types of statuettes appear, among which there are both human FF and HH statuettes, although the latter predominate. As for ceramics, ceramic pieces appear for the first time in America -generally vessels- crowned by the shape of a small house or even modeled entirely in the form of a house. They spread faintly to Mesoamerica and are more abundant on the northern coast of Peru. In the Old World, the oldest known form of these representations of houses is found in Palestine, in the IV millennium B.C., Tahoiunian culture; they spread somewhat later and then acquire a great expansion, as a product of the Orientalizing period, when they reach Etruria and the coasts of the South of the Baltic. In the East, then, they spread to Indonesia, Indochina, China and Japan and reached America.
The ceramic statuettes of this culture generally show us seated personages, of medium to medium size and hollow; the presence of the beard is the most common thing, predominating in the statuettes of human type H; the beard that they have, in general is not big, but it is well cared, and it is presented in two or three points or peritas. The faces of the personages are completely caucasoid.
It is important to say something more about the cultures of that time on the coasts of Ecuador, from 500 B.C. A series of artistic features appear there in the representation of human faces, especially the feminine ones, which are completely foreign to all other American sculptural arts, something that we deal with extensively in our work America in World Prehistory, with abundant illustrations. Their greatest analog in the whole world is found in the island of Cyprus, in the Mediterranean, in the Orientalizing period (VII to VI century B.C.). There are even representations of faces in clay, which are a clear transition between this orientalizing art and the classic Mochica sculptures of the huaco-portraits, which we consider to be of the greatest importance. We clarify that, at that time, features of Mycenaean survival are mixed in Cyprus with other recent Greeks, of the moment, but the most are orientalizing Phoenicians.
Naturally, these human figures, in Ecuador, correspond to the human type H ; the armenoid type nose is frequent and, as for the beard, it is missing, for the simple reason that almost all the figures to which we refer are feminine, but at the same time they are absolutely caucasoid, without the slightest trait that could be supposed of Mongoloid origin.
We consider that this has been one of the last large-scale relationships that, from the ancient Mediterranean, has reached the American coasts; the strangest thing is that it has practically not been studied; what we know of the case are only a series of loose human representations, without the whole of the culture having been well established. We have already said that this art is the basis of the Mochica culture; we now add that it is also the basis of the Tiahuanaco culture in its Classic period, since the form of its "monoliths" appears there then, although in a size that does not exceed one meter.
In the later cultures of Ecuador, the presence of the beard decreases in their representations, especially because the representations of human faces become much poorer.
From Colombia we do not know -or we do not remember now- representations of human faces with beards, although there are a few curved noses, of armenoid type. In the human faces and masks of the statues of San Agustín, negroid type noses abound, as in the large heads of La Venta.
We move on to Peru. There, we have the Chavin culture, compared more than once with the Olmec. One of its oldest forms -or more probably another predecessor culture- is that of Cerro Sechin, on the coast, north of Lima. From it we have a large series of stelae engraved in bas-relief, which have been reused in a later temple, as is the case with the "dancers" of Monte Alban I. This temple probably corresponds to a primitive phase of the Chavín culture and its antiquity is well before the beginning of the first millennium B.C.E.. One of such stelae, at least, presents a beard, in simple representation of long hair; it corresponds to a decapitated head. All the stelae of this style seem to represent scenes of a fight - with dismembered enemies - or, perhaps, human sacrifices. Two of the mono-
THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE BEARD, IN THE EQUATOR. Figure of clay, of a personage with the beard arranged forming two points. In another illustration there are three points. From the Bahia culture prior to the Era. According to Estrada, 1962. Taken from Gordon R. Willey: An Introduction to American Archaeology, fig. 5-47.
The engraved lithographs represent a large ship, with lateral outriggers or floats, or two ships, depending on the interpretation of the case. Another presents us with an engraving of a high navigation quadrant, which would be considered impossible for those times, but which is very clear, in spite of the customary interpretation "that arranges things" and tells us that it is the representation of a human paddle.
For the classic Chavín culture, we have a whole series of large stone monoliths and stelae, including clay ones, most of which show human figures -often with zoomorphic features- and masked. As far as we know, only one has something that we can interpret as a beard; it comes from Cajamarca and has only four thick "hairs".
As time goes by, we arrive at the Mochica culture, from which stone sculpture has disappeared; on the other hand, it presents us with many thousands of huaco-portraits, where the human face -we should better say, the head- appears admirably sculpted, for which reason, necessarily, we consider that living models have been used, in most cases. The complete human figure is also very frequent and the same happens with the small modeled scenes. The Mochica culture also presents us with innumerable painted scenes, many of war and others peaceful, where we find characters that lack beards, but sometimes they show us a large spiral mustache, a form that we have already seen in Mesoamerica; on other occasions, this mustache is smaller and slightly exceeds the upper lip. We include illustrations of this. It is important to point out the fact that, in most cases, in the war scenes it is the defeated who wear this detail of the moustache.
The great majority of the huaco-portraits do not present beard or mustache, but a large armenoid nose; although sometimes that nose is straight, it is always large. The lack of the beard is explained by the aforementioned reason that, in the area, there are beautiful Greek-shaped razors, the same shape used by our barbers, although with a longer handle.
Continuing with the topic of the metal -in the Mochica culture as well as in the neighboring and contemporary, in origin, of the Mochica I, that of Vicús, that would begin towards the V century before the Age- there are abundant copper weapons. We must warn that the material is of copper, but the forms correspond to those of bronze of the Age of Superior Bronze of the Old World, especially of Persia and inclusive Greece and Anatolia; among them they are very diverse forms of heads of mace, generally star-shaped (frequently, imitated in stone and thus diffused), and the same contreras of maces and spears, that appear well represented in the paintings and modeled.
The quantity of huaco-portraits of the Mochica culture, in all its epochs, with the figuration of the human type we are dealing with -that is, with the net Caucasoid aspect of the Armenoid race- makes us suppose that there was an important concentration of this human type there, possibly greater than that found in Mesoamerica, in its different regions. But we should not
forget that what was represented in them was fundamentally the ruling class and not the people, who appear in very few representations, with a clearly coarser face, in general. There are also representations of other human types, which have been studied and described especially by R. Larco Hoyle in his work Los Mochicas. The illustrations of human faces are now completely mongoloid; others, by their physiognomy, clearly show to belong to the black type, not even mestizo. Although they are only a few samples, they are enough to know that these human types existed there.
An important clarification: Mochica paintings, in ceramics, copy mural paintings, exactly as it happened in ancient Greece and Etruria. A good example of this is that some of these mural paintings have been miraculously preserved.
MINOR MONOLITH OF CERRO SECHIN, left side of the temple. According to Julio C. Tello: Archaeology of the Casma Valley, fig. 87. The presence of beard is very evident. In Cerro Sechin, the monoliths show characters that have had a battle and numerous dead; this is a severed head. The antiquity of the ruins is not well determined, but it is quite previous to the Chavin culture. Some give it up to 1800 years before the Era; a more common figure gives us 1400 years BC. C.
Peruvian mummified head, with blond hair. From Chancay. According to Juan Carlos Martelli: Mysteries of Ancient Peru, page 9, in "FANAL", Ne 70, Lima 1964. According to the author, five of these mummies have been found, one of them has a "reddish beard". The present one is the fifth, called "the gringa", by the press. The hair is golden blond and the face seems to us to be of Mediterranean type. The idea of bleached hair has been discarded, especially with the finding of a reddish hair with gray hair; the hair is thin and fine. The age of these mummies is 700 years ago. The original, in color.
they look like individuals of Mediterranean race. Some of them show mustaches. Almost all of them are from Chimbote.
The other Peruvian cultures, contemporary and later, rarely present us with the beard and mustache features we are dealing with, although the representation of aquiline noses is quite common.
In the central coast of Peru, especially, a series of mummies have been found - some of them very old - with blond hair. The illustrations we have, two in color -one with very light blond hair and the other with brown and wavy hair- are of women, so that, naturally260
brown hair on a Peruvian mummy. From Chancay. According to Juan Carlos Martelli: Mysteries of Ancient Peru, page 9, in "FANAL", Ne 70, Lima 1964. It is supposed that the person was buried alive, for the apparent gesture of fright that it presents, but we do not believe that, thing that is not interesting now. The hair is brown (the illustration is in color) and clearly wavy and fine. The breed seems to be Mediterranean.
They do not have beards or mustaches. It would be important to see if, in the possible male mummies that are known, these features appear.
For our part, in Bolivia we have found a couple of skulls with remains of reddish hair, both of type F, Indonesian; in the Archaeological Museum founded in San Pedro de Atacama by Father Le Paige, we saw several dozens of mummies and human heads, provided with brown and wavy hair, the same as in some mummies of NW Argentina.
On this last point I remember that, visiting the Archaeological Museum of Humahuaca - made by the late friend
caucasoid sculpture, from tiahuanaco. According to Pierre Honoré: The Legend of the White Dloses, fig. 55. There is another double sculpture, practically the same, with the same human type. Although the beard is missing -perhaps because the personage is shaved- the face is absolutely caucasoid.
Casanova- together with some colleagues, when we pointed out these characteristics to several mummies with brown and wavy hair, we were told that the hair was discolored by time and that the waviness came from its drying. The answer would be good if, next to them, there were not other mummies with black and straight hair, why had not the same waving and drying process occurred in them?
We move on to the Inca culture. The human representations that we have left of this culture are very scarce and none of those that we know have beards or mustaches, although the representations of aquiline noses are abundant. We clarify that one of the reasons why the Inca sculpture disappeared -we have not seen this fact pointed out- is due to the fact that it was mainly made in sculptures in complete bulk, of men and women, in gold and silver. This is pointed out by numerous chroniclers. Naturally, for this reason they disappeared in the Spanish smelting furnaces, just a few days after the
conquest. The chroniclers also inform us that the Inca ruling class was lighter in color than their subjects.
Among the Incas, there was a monarch and a god from whom that Inca took his name, called Huiracocha, a word that has no direct translation either in Quichua or in Aymara (actually, the name appears as formed by two Quichua voices: cocha, lake and huira, fat, oil; but they should, according to the genius of that indigenous language, be combined in reverse: cochahuira). We consider that the word is deformed and that it is related to the Amazonian Muyrakita ("green stone"), but the case needs further study. What is certain is that, in a quite constant way, the chroniclers refer us that the god Huiracocha was "white and bearded"; this is how Huaman Poma, indigenous chronicler, represents the Inca Huiracocha, with a small beard that extends along his cheeks.
beard, on a copper disc of the Argentine no. According to Márquez Miranda: Los Diaguitas, fig. 109, from Leconte. In low and coughed bas-relief, it represents a human face from the lower part of which five threads emerge, showing a rather long beard. Diameter, 374 mm .
BARBUDA FACE, IN A BIG CANTARO from Santiago del Estero. Height 575 mm., with human face in relief of pastillaje, which highlights a large wavy beard and a small nose. Excavations O. Righetti, Beltrán, Santiago del Estero, Wagner Archaeological Museum.
We now come to the Bolivian territory. Here, the beard is practically absent in human representations; the mustache is only known in two ceramic kerus vases with a sculpted human face; these are small mustaches that comprise only the ends of the upper lip and end in a small curved upward point; it can be interpreted as Caucasoid or Mongoloid. Another case shows a perita. On the other hand, in stone sculptures and, more especially, in modeled ceramics and paintings, the aquiline nose often appears, as well as the straight nose, accompanied by a vigorous chin. The set of these faces is completely Caucasoid, as can be seen in an illustration that we present. Other figures-and especially the two rather large monoliths that are today on the sides of the entrance to the church of the town of Tiahuanaco-show Mongoloid-type features in their faces, with some Amurian detail.
In the cultures of the interior of Bolivia that we have personally discovered, those of the valleys of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca and Tarija, that is, those of the Túmulos, Sauces, Tupuray, Mojocoya, Nazcoide, etc., the human representations, relatively abundant in small figures of stone and clay, do not have beard nor mustache, at the same time that they show diverse human types, among which sometimes appears the armenoid nose. The first two cited above show individuals of human type H; the others are F.
With this we arrive at the Argentine Northwest. There are many representations in stone here, practically all belonging to ancient levels, of small size, sometimes sculpted as ornaments of vessels, mortars, etc. and very many small sculptures in clay, the so-called statuettes, that figure individuals H, in their great majority. Properly we consider that, in their origin, they derive from the statuettes of the Machalilla culture, the next to Valdivia in Ecuador, which spreads as a base of the later Andean cultures. They are found, along with the oldest ceramics, throughout our Northwest and have numerous marginal survivals, while they spread to the Coast. In an intermediate moment, there appear the exquisite statuettes of the Draconian culture -Aguada according to González- of which we have already spoken and which are of type
Indonesian human F. There are no beards or mustaches on all the ones we know of, but here it should be clarified that the vast majority are female.
On the other hand, the beard does appear in several ceramics, for example, in the vessel modeled in the total form of an old man, which is conserved in the Ethnographic Museum of Buenos Aires, with a wide beard of the Caucasoid type. The beard is also represented in several large vessels or pitchers, from Santiago del Estero, in whose upper part is modeled in pastillaje, a rough human face, accompanied by reliefs that fall forming a curled beard, armenoid.
The same happens in several metal objects, such as the so-called bronze discs and in some bronze bells, which show one or two human faces formed by
ABNORMAL LITHIC SCULPTURE, FOUND IN MULCHEN, CHILE. According to Dillman S. Bullock: A curious and rare object found in Mulchen, province of Blobro, Chile. Sculpture in andesite, very hard stone, 122 mm. high, representing a human head of Nordic type. Its antiquity is unknown, because it was found when plowing a field. It has been supposed to be of colonial origin, but "who could have made it at that time"; besides, the "spike" at its base is indigenous. The figure has a broad beard and whiskers. We believe it is probably a pre-Columbian object, of transpacific arrival.
lines in small relief, made in foundry; they show four or five lines, which form a rather long and smooth beard. We have already mentioned much earlier that, in the ceramics of the culture of La Candelaria, of Salta and the North of Tucumán, corresponding in origin to times slightly before Christ, but which seems to have lasted perhaps a thousand years, there appear individuals and modeled faces, in which a beard is indicated, or rather we would say a beard.
For Chile, we have a small stone sculpture with a truly extraordinary human face, which is why we reproduce it in a photograph and drawing. It is an isolated finding, while plowing a field in the Araucanian province of Biobío. It measures 12,2cm12,2 \mathrm{~cm} . and is made of andesite. Sculpted on it, there is a complete human head, whose face is extraordinarily of Nordic type, with broad beard and mustache, straight nose and corresponding eyes. It has a cap, broken at the end, which seems to be pointed and would appear to us to be Phoenician.
This is an extraordinary piece, we repeat, as rarely found in America. The face is unquestionably European, but the whole in which it is carved, especially the lower spike that supports it, is indigenous.
Chapter VII
Other American Indian Races
1. Slight initial comments and other native races.
In all the above, up to now, our effort has been exclusively directed to try to demonstrate the existence in America, of non-Mongoloid indigenous races, against the idea that the American indigenous population is exclusively Mongoloid or little less. The Mongoloid races that we have been seeing are quite clear and they are summarized in the undoubted presence of two human groups of Caucasoid type, the primitive Ainos or better Amurians, and the individuals of Armenoid race, characterized by their beard and mustache, which are well distinguished from the previous ones by their prominent hooked or hooked nose.
With what has been said, we are not saying that these human forms are the only Caucasoid forms present in America; the last lines of the previous chapter and its illustration are a good example in this respect, but it is evident that they did not form important populations; they are only isolated individuals, perhaps families, but which undoubtedly must have been soon absorbed by the majority population of the continent.
We now present another undoubted similar fact, although it may correspond to a larger number of individuals, since there are several such representations, all of them corresponding to the Old Mayan Empire.
Since the end of the Olmec culture, in the South of Mexico and Guatemala, numerous traits of direct Hindu influence appear, which probably began about five centuries before our Era. That is too early for the
known Sanskrit-speaking Hindu historical influence in Indonesia and Indochina, which occurs at the beginning of the second century AD. Undoubtedly, it is not too early for the very beginning of Hindu civilization. Let us clarify here that the known and historical Hindu influence in Indonesia takes place thanks to the diffusion, first of Hinduism and then of Buddhism, in missionary action, naturally developed by conquering political interests.
But the Hindu civilization existed before that. The Aryan barbarian peoples, in spite of how much they are praised in the later Hindu epics and by the "Aryanizing" European authors, destroyed the Hindo Civilization around 1500 B.C.; a long Middle Ages followed. From that Middle Ages, the Aryans of the Ganges began to emerge when the Aryan monarch Azoca conquered the Dravidian-speaking kingdom of Kalinga, in the 3rd century B.C., which already had a developed maritime navigation. With this conquest, the Kalinga craftsmen who knew how to construct stone buildings and sculptures were transferred to the Ganges area. Thus began the rebirth of civilization among the Aryans.
But from centuries before, evidently, the Dravidian peoples of South India had already been developing extensively in this work of architecture and stone sculpture, not only the Kalingas; there were three other important kingdoms in South India at that time - of Dravidian language, not Aryan - all of them had already developed maritime navigation and traded with the Mediterranean and, undoubtedly, with Indonesia and Indochina, although we lack historical news in this respect. It is also important to say that the European researchers who have studied the archaeology of India were, naturally, admirers of the "Aryan civilization", because it served to exalt their own. The present researchers of free India are also Aryans, which is why there has been very little interest in studying the older phases of the Dravidian civilization.
But many words from the Dravidian languages have spread to Indonesia and even to the Polynesian languages, all the way to New Zealand. Therefore, the relationship between Dravidian India and Indonesia is undoubted and very close.
prior to those of Sanskrit-speaking India. And it is with this that the first influences from India received by the last Olmecs must be related, which later appear very intensely in the Mayan peoples. Undoubtedly these relations lasted quite a long time and, in the most recent of them, we have no objection in recognizing that direct influences of Aryan peoples of Sanskrit language widely reached the Mayas of the Old Empire. It would be necessary to investigate if Sanskrit words are found in the religion of the Mayan peoples, which we believe to be undoubted. For us, the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl, called Kukulcan among the Mayas, is directly the same Vishnu of India; the proof: both have as insignia and sign a snail of the same species.
With 'what has been expressed, we can now face the problem that a series of Maya sculptures with the head and also the whole body of a Young God mean to us. It has been tried to interpret it as "The Young God of Corn", a point that we dealt with in our work Cosmogony and American Indian Mythology, published by Editorial Kier.
What matters to us is the representation of the head and face of this person, although we believe that it is more of a person, at least two, according to the illustrations that we possess. His face is absolutely typical of the purest and most classical Hindu art; there is nothing mongoloid or armenoid in it; being the faces of young men, they lack beard and moustache, while the nose is straight, the eyes are closed and slanted. Their whole style of art is Hindu, we repeat, which cannot be doubted.
We reproduce illustrations of two human types, in these Mayan heads, which we take from an old monograph by W. H. Holmes, On the Race History, one of which is shown next to an Indonesian sculpture representing the head of Buddha, with remarkable similarities. The Mayan human head, here, shows us a Caucasoid individual, apparently of the F-6 type, while the second human sculpture, Mayan, presented to us by Holmes, shows clearly a developed F-1. It differs greatly from the previous face in the fact that it is much taller, with a long, straight, thin nose and a large ubnasal space, which is an almost constant characteristic in all the
Mayan and Hindu sculptures. According to W. H. Holmes: On the Race History. The author, in an important article of critical examination of the American Indian races, makes the comparison that we present. First, a Mayan sculpture from Guatemala and then, an Indonesian sculpture of Buddha. The similarities are remarkable, although we point out that the Mayan sculpture has its eyes more similar to what would be a derivation of the Orientalizing period of the ancient Mediterranean: its human type, on the other hand, appears more Hindu than from Ancient Asia, whose human type is more frequent in America.
human individuals 1, either F or H. It also has large ears. The eyes are closed, in both Maya heads, corresponding this feature to the squinted shape of the eyes of the head of the Buddha, Indonesian.
As can be seen, such a great difference in the representation of this supposed "Young Maize God", we believe that it shows that it is not a single personality represented; it is even possible to find a transitional interpretation that reconciles both hypotheses. To serve as a "model" of the god, young people with Hindu-like characteristics were chosen, according to the features of their first bearers in the region.
We have other illustrations about this one, but for our expository needs, it is enough.
sculpture of Hindu type, in the Mayan culture. Old Empire, Guatemala. According to W. H. Holmes: On the Race History, plate 12, fig. 2. The art with which it is made is classically Hindu; also the face represented is Hindu, without any Mongoloid features. It is an H-1 human type.
2. Negroid racial types in pre-Columbian America.
Although this subject has been dealt with by several authors, naturally, the supporters of the American Indian racial unity -who suppose it to be a derivation of the Mongolian race- have opposed it with all their energy.
The discovery of representations of black individuals in pre-Columbian America began at the end of the last century in Mexico, with the discovery of the first giant human head, made in stone, from the Olmec civilization. At the beginning, this was widely accepted, and it was even assumed that they were the
first settlers of the continent and that they came directly from an African migration; then, when the complete triumph of the North American School of Hrdliçka, etc., took place, the case was left aside and, even, forgotten. At the present time, those Negroid features are still pointed out in the great Olmec heads, but normally no explanation is given about them.
By the way, these are not the only representations of blacks -or of Negroid mestizos or mulattoes in America- but there are many others, both sculpted in stone and modeled in ceramic and painted on it. In addition, there are numerous skulls whose measurements - especially a pronounced prognathism - have caused them to be presented as such, but the constant opposition of the aforementioned School managed to deny them, mainly on the basis of this premise: "they could not exist". We ourselves have found two of these skulls in our excavations in Bolivia. One in Potosi, shortly before the Inca conquest in the area, with frankly black African characters; another in Mizque, Cochabamba, with features more typical of the Alfuru, in the extreme east of Indonesia.
But we have already said that, in the present work, we shall do our best to conform to Birdsell's comparative requirements. Consequently, we must leave the skulls aside and confine ourselves to looking, as far as possible, at the representations of black types on sculptures and ceramics. We renounce in advance any study of the skulls, their measurements and especially their prognathism.
The adversary criticism has been directed especially to deny any possibility of a direct relationship with Africa, of those individuals (they do not form in any case a grouped population) in America. To this end, it has been particularly devoted to deny any capacity of navigation to the natives of Africa, which is far from being true, as we shall see.
Moreover, we consider that this transatlantic relationship was minimal and late, and that it did not have the slightest effect on the representations we are dealing with here. We will discuss them briefly below. In the meantime, we begin by setting out our interpretation of the origin of these representations of black and Negroid types in pre-Columbian America, which we consider to be of a very different nature.
and which, therefore, we will try to explain. The first thing is that those black types appearing in America did not proceedı by the direct route from Africa, but by the transpacific route, as did the Caucasian races of which we dealt with earlier.
Because of the forced brevity with which we treat this subject, we will not make quotations, although they could be quite numerous; but we will begin by pointing out the fact that, in the late Middle Ages, Chinese junks reached as far as India and the Persian Gulf, passing through Indonesia, which was then full of pirates. They were large junks, with a capacity of up to 3,000 tons, incredible as it may seem. What is certain is that there was a regular navigation between China and India, with cabins with bathrooms, tickets sold in advance, etc., as described by Ibn Battuta in the 14th century, who traveled in a ship that carried two hundred passengers and a total of about twelve hundred people and consisted of twelve masts, with fixed sails, etc. What matters to us from this description is the fact that these junks carried 400 marine soldiers, generally Abyssinians, or, for that matter, blacks, because they were considered the fiercest to defend against pirate attacks. The presence and diffusion of the blacks in all those regions where the South Asian navigation was already common; undoubtedly, it was it for many centuries - possibly something more than a couple of millennia - to be able to explain the heads of blacks of La Venta and, even, the clay representations of Tlatilco.
In other words, the blacks that appear in La Venta and Tlatilco, at least around 800 B.C., would not have arrived in the American continent by themselves, but rather as part of the crew of the traders who, at that time, traveled the coasts of South Asia and reached the American coasts on their journeys. We clarify well that we do not speak of slaves, because the American representations of the case correspond to characters, or rather, to nobles, by the fact that almost all of these American figures of blacks show us the characteristic ears of the indigenous nobility.
The territories of Eritrea and Abyssinia at that time must still have been populated mainly by blacks, who, thanks to relations with the Yemen of the Sabeans and no doubt with Egypt, had already developed a sufficiently high culture as
so that among them there were also good merchants who, either in their own ships or as passengers in Sabean or even Phoenician vessels, arrived with their trade to distant lands, in this case, America.
Naturally, these blacks or negroids would be of more than one human type; this is how we find them in the American representations, where most of their figures show them of human type H, but also a few of clear type FF , although the latter may be due to the fact that the individuals who made these figures (clay figurines from Mexico) were of type F, or else they were mulattoes (mulatas rather, according to the figurines we have), produced by local crossbreeding or in Indonesia, with human forms F, characteristic of that region.
There are two areas in America where these human forms are found in the representations. The first has been the only one cited so far and is the Olmec area of La Venta and its influences in Tlatilco, with some later survivals. The second zone is more limited; it includes the Mochica territory and up to San Agustín, from where there are a few representations of blacks, very good, also with orejones, that is to say, lords of the nobility, in the huaco-portraits.
Apart from the two territories mentioned above, we know of no representations of blacks in indigenous America, so that they seem to have been quite limited in their diffusion throughout America. They also seem to have been few in number, so it would not take many generations for them to disappear in the natural mixes produced. However, there is the other material mentioned, that of the skulls with Negroid features, which indicate a greater diffusion and a much greater antiquity, but we have already said that we restrict this material as much as possible.
We have yet to deal with a direct relationship - albeit very late - with Africa, which seems to us to be undoubtedly due to the following fact. There is an Arabic account from the Sudan, from the middle of the 14th century, which tells of an African expedition to America, crossing the Atlantic - it would be better to say the expeditions, since there were two - with an annotation of return for the first one and sin\sin news for the second one.
We have two monographs in which these facts are cited. We consider the first interpretation to be possible; it is by our friend Armando Vivante and is entitled El problema de los negros prehispánicos americanos (The problem of the American pre-Hispanic blacks). The second, also by our friend Juan Comas, entitled Transatlantic hypotheses on the settlement of America, expresses a frankly negative position on the case, but both give us other information that we will see soon.
We now have two brief quotations from another author, for although he gives us very brief information, in the second of them he includes a fact not cited by these previous friends and which solves the problem in the affirmative, as will soon be seen. This other author is Pierre Bertaux, and his work, Africa. From Prehistory to the Present States. The first quotation is from page 45, where we are told the following:
"In 1300, the Keita dynasty came to the throne. Of the three princes who succeeded each other between 1300 and 1312, we hardly know their names. However, the last, Abubakari II, undertook between 1310 and 1312 a maritime expedition from the Atlantic coast. Two hundred canoes equipped and abundantly supplied with provisions were ordered to sail westward and not to turn back until they had reached the other side of the ocean. As only one returned, the same sovereign sent this time two thousand canoes, of which none returned. The conclusion has been drawn, a little bold perhaps, that the piraguistas of Mali had discovered America before Christopher Columbus."
We see that the author also doubts that this fleet of canoes could have reached the American coasts, even though they must have been canoes easily twenty meters long and possibly placed in double form, like the Polynesian ones, more than enough to reach, theoretically, the American coasts. But what interests us is that one pirogue that returned, sin\sin no doubt with important information, otherwise that later, more numerous fleet would not have been sent. The black kingdom of Mali then extended from beyond Timbuktu to the coasts of Senegal; from those coasts it was not difficult to send those fleets of pirogues.
The main thing in the case is to prove that indeed one of the two hundred canoes of the first expedition returned (naturally, that number seems exaggerated; even more so that of the two thousand of the following expedition). Here is the fact for which we cite
This author, because he gives us full proof of this return, at least, of a canoe. Indeed, a few pages further on in the work we quote (47-48), the author provides us with the fundamental information, without realizing its significance. Speaking of Ibn Battuta's historical relationship, he expresses:
"He shows his astonishment that the heir to the throne is the son of the sister of the deceased. He notes that agriculture is prosperous and trade flourishing. Caravans arrive in Timbuktu from all points of the horizon. He observes the frugality of the meals: millet stew sweetened with honey and a little milk. He is surprised to see arachid or peanuts. The natives take from underground grains that look like beans; they fry them and their taste resembles that of fried chickpeas. They grind these grains and extract the oil that is used for cooking, lighting, hygiene and to paint the houses."
These peanuts are the peanuts of Argentina and we do not know of any other plant that has these characteristics of giving bean-like kernels under the ground, that are fried or roasted, that give oil for the above mentioned uses, etc. Therefore, it is clear that it is that plant, of the Arachid family.
However, it happens that the peanut plant is exclusively American in its origin. Ibn Battuta describes it in use in Timbuktu, forty years after the possible return of the canoe of the first expedition. This needs to be explained. The presence of this American plant in central Sudan in the mid-fourteenth century, we believe, undoubtedly proves that there was then a relationship with the American lands and, most likely, that its grains were brought in the canoe that returned. It would be important, also, to see if Ibn Battuta describes well that millet that was sweetened with honey, because it could be the corn, whose presence in Africa seems to be described by the Portuguese navigators, before Columbus arrived in America. The Portuguese tell us of a millet zaburo or zaburro, planted by the natives of the coast of Guinea, and that name of zaburo is maintained there today, to designate exclusively corn.
But that is not all. Our two friends, Vivante and Comas, give us abundant information about the American counterpart of the case, something that we had already noticed, but about which Vivante gathers all the information available, while Comas criticizes and denies it.
We will not give details by means of quotations, but will summarize the facts. Columbus, in his voyage through the Lesser Antilles and Hispaniola, refers that the natives told that their ancestors had fought against an invasion of black-skinned people who brought azagayas and spears tipped with guanín (in this case, it would be iron, well used by the blacks of the Sudan; for the natives of the Antilles, guanín would be all metal). Other chroniclers refer us to the existence of a small group of blacks, very bellicose, who inhabited Panama and who would have disappeared soon, due to wars. Very important is the fact that these geographical points are arranged in areas where a fleet of canoes could be dragged by the currents.
Juan Comas - the same as Vivante - cites all these facts, but he manages to dismiss them, especially on the grounds that none of the chroniclers who cite them say that these American "blacks" had mottled hair. The truth is that their existence is stated by more than one chronicler, when he says that "they were black like those of Guinea".
We are interested in inserting a sample of Comas' criticism, where he quotes another author who we do not know to be an anthropologist, but an archaeologist; therefore, he has the excuse that he may not know well the feature he is dealing with. But Juan Comas is a physical anthropologist par excellence and this excuse is not enough for him. He quotes Ignacio Bernal and his rejection of African influence in America, with reference to the most ancient Negroids represented in the great Olmec heads:
"Studying Bernal the physical type, according to its representation in archaeological pieces, he refers to the 'epicanthal fold, the most characteristic feature of Mongoloid faces,' and adds:
"But let us remember at the same time that much has been said that the colossal heads represent a negroid type, whence is supposed the presence of true negroes arrived on the shores of the Gulf. In reality it is improbable, though not impossible, this arrival and even more improbable the combination of the epicanthic fold with negroid faces."
The final underlining is ours, and therein lies what Comas cannot be unaware of as an anthropologist; therefore, he should not have made that absolutely wrong quotation, but since he
it was convenient to do so. There, in the underlined, lies the problem: the combination of the epicanthic fold with Negroid faces is held to be absolutely improbable, when it is well known that the epicanthic fold exists in numerous black peoples and that among the Senegalese, this presence is up to 70%, that is, even more than in many peoples considered as absolutely mongoloid.
We repeat that this could not be ignored by Juan Comas.
We return to our basic theme, that is, Negroids and Negroes in ancient American civilizations. They are already present in the Olmec civilization, so they must have arrived in America at least around 1,000 B.C.E. They are the ones represented in clay statuettes from Tlatilco and in the undoubtedly later giant heads of the Olmecs. They are the ones represented in clay statuettes of Tlatilco and in the undoubtedly already later Olmec giant heads. Regarding the latter, we do not know of any of them, in the illustrations that we possess, where this epicanthic fold of which Ignacio Bernal speaks, but it may exist in some unknown to us. The features - we have already said it - are well of African blacks and not of Melanesians or Newaguineans, but also some heads present features that already seem to us of mulattoes, that is to say, of mestizos of true blacks and whites. A good example of this is one of the best known of these great Olmec heads, whose features immediately recall those of the great Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío, a first generation mulatto.
In addition, the representation of blacks in Mexico continued at least until the Classic period, as can be seen in a clay statuette of that time that we see in the work of Cyrus Gordon. In it and in two other similar statuettes from Tlatilco we can even see the representation of the hair, in a fine hairstyle, where a series of small lines seem to represent the hair in mote, something that especially Juan Comas insists on denying that it exists in America. This is not seen in the great Olmec stone heads, for the simple reason that they are covered by a helmet.
The same occurs in the Mochica pieces in the Larco Herrera Museum, where the heads are covered by the classic Mochica war helmet. In all the cases mentioned above, they are members of the Mochicas.
STATUILLS OF NEGROID TYPE, FROM TLATILCO, of probable Olmec influence. According to R. Piña Chan: Mesoamerica, fig. 11. These two acrilla statuettes show Negroid type features in the face and, more undoubtedly, in the strong steatopygia that can be seen in the profile of the second one. In the hair it seems that a kinky form was also intended to be represented. Probable antiquity, around 1000 B.C.
of the nobility and not of serfs of the glebe, because they have the ears characteristic of that caste.
In almost all the stone statues of San Agustin, Colombia, also appears the negroid feature of the very wide nose, directly comparable with the great Olmec heads, while the Mongolian fold is missing; but almost all of them represent masks. As other features indicating the type are missing, we prefer not to deal with them.
We will not describe here the different samples that we possess, but we choose to reproduce some pieces - both from Mexico and Peru - as demonstrative proof of all that we have been saying about the presence of true African blacks, in very ancient times of pre-Columbian America. We repeat that, for us, it is a question of relatively few individuals who arrived isolated, in the ships of the merchants, and stayed in our country.
BLACKS IN PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICA. Two huaco-portraits from the Larco Herrera Museum in Peru, belonging to the Middle Mochica culture, published by A. Schedl (1957 and 1959), according to A. Vivante, 1967. Schedl, as well as Vivante, recognize the Negroid character of the features of the characters represented and the fact that they are not slaves but lords, as can be seen, especially, by the characteristic ears of the former.
In a not too long time, they ended up disappearing, due to the inevitable mixing with the majority population of the continent.
3. The pygmies or pygmoids, in indigenous America.
On this subject there is a very abundant bibliography, where some researchers maintain the existence of elemen-
PYGMIES IN AMERICA. Indian of the Motilón tribe of Colombia, of pygmy stature, as can be seen. Photo by J. Bautista Venturello, reproduced by A. Vivante, 1967, plate IV. There has been much discussion about the existence of these pygmies in America, seeking deniers. Some say that they were degenerated individuals due to poor nutrition and others point out that there are some individuals of normal stature among them. Both theses are arbitrary. There are also small groups confused with the indigenous population in the Andean region, especially in Cochabamba, Bolivia.
In pre-Columbian America, pygmy or, at least, pygmoid racial groups are considered pygmy or pygmoid. Let us clarify this: true pygmies are considered to be those peoples in which the maximum height of the male individuals does not exceed 150 cm; as pygmoids, those populations in which this height is slightly surpassed, up to 155 cm, as a maximum already doubtful.
These pygmy and pygmoid peoples have been particularly
THE PYGMIES IN AMERICA. The problem of the existence of the pygmy race in America needs to be discussed in a better way than it has been done so far. In the present photograph we see the Italian traveler Venturello, next to two Motilones Indian women, from Colombia. Their stature is indisputably that of pygmies, but it is supposed to be an individual and not a racial trait, despite the fact that this tan\tan short stature is common among the Motilones.
located in the north of South America, both at the mouth of the Orinoco and, more especially, in the border region of Venezuela and Colombia, where they have been found in all the most recent studies.
Naturally, the supporters of the single Mongoloid origin of the American Indians have been determined to deny the existence of these American pygmies, not even admitting the fact that they could be considered as pygmoids. They have based this on the fact that the few measured series of these individuals had some that exceeded 155 cm, to which we will answer here that, in Africa, when the pygmies are studied and an individual is found that exceeds 150 cm, it is eliminated from the series, considering it as a mongrel with the tallest blacks.
To enter properly into the subject, we need a summary of the case. The best we can do is to reproduce here the pages that Dr. Paul Rivet devotes to the case, in his work The Origins of American Man, chapter VII, entitled The White Element and the Pygmies in America, the first part of which - referring to the white element - we have already transcribed above.
The second part of this chapter, pages 145-155 of the work we quote, follows. As usual, the bibliographical notes are omitted:
"More enigmatic than this white element, but also proven with all certainty, there is the pygmy element in America.
"In the account of his first trip to Venezuela Niclaus Ferdermann points out that the Ayamán were characterized by a stature that did not exceed five palms, or 120 cms, and did not exceed, in many individuals, 4 palms, or 96 cm, admitting that the span has a length of 24 cms. The explorer adds that these Indians were well made and well proportioned. The Ayamán or Ayomán lived on the banks of the middle course of the Tocuyo River and their rare survivors are found in the surroundings of the municipalities of San Miguel, Aguada Grande and Moroturo, in the State of Lara, Venezuela. Ferdermann's observation was overlooked, yy even doubted until the day when Alfredo Jahn found true dwarfs in Parupano, Moroturo and San Miguel, that is, in Ayaman territory, in Arenales and El Cerrito, near Quibor, in an area inhabited by the Gayones, a tribe related to the Ayamans. He was able to measure some of them: Maria
Nelo, from San Miguel, was 111 cms. tall; Alejandro and Lola, brother and sister, natives of Arenales (between Barquisimeto and Carora) were 115 and 112 cms. tall, respectively.
"For his part, Antonio Requena measured twelve Ayaman skulls given in 1945 by the widow and children of Dario Maldonado to the National Museum of Natural History. The capacity of these skulls varies between 1,042 and 1,045 centimeters, with an average of 1,250 centimeters. Although neither their detailed study nor the determination of sexes has been made, this series undoubtedly includes skulls of very small capacity.
"Oviedo mentions Indians of very small stature and bearded in the Nori Valley, at the source of the Sinú, in Colombia. The same tradition has been collected among the Cuna of the Darien. Francisco de Garay also found in 1519, in the province of Amichel, which corresponds to the Pánuco region, on the eastern coast of Mexico, some Indians whose stature was not more than 5 or 6 palms, or 105 or 126 centimeters. [Error. are, according to their previous account of a span =4cms=4 \mathrm{cms} . respectively, 120 and 144 cms .]. Modern travellers insist on the very small stature of the Makúes, who live in a nomadic state between the Rio Negro and the Yapurá, of the Guaharibos or Shirianá, who live on the banks of two tributaries of the Uraricuera, and of their near relatives, the Waikas, of the upper Ocamo and Mocojahy, very recently, a North American engineer, Albert Palmer, has pointed out the existence of a pygmy group of 15 individuals on the Cocuinita river, in the Federal territory of Delta Amacuro in Venezuela, a river that joins the Cocuina with the Tucupita of the Orinoco delta.
"On the other hand, anthropologists, in particular R. Virchow and J. Kollmann discovered in American collections skulls of very small capacity that do not present pathological characters. Here are the main ones:
Pygmy Indians analogous to the Ayaman tribe, mentioned by Ferdermann.
"In 1920, Gustaf Bolinder first came into contact with a tribe of the Perijá mountain range in Colombia, the Maraká, who live at the source of the river of that name. Bolinder took a film that attracted the attention of our great friend Erland Nordenskiōld, who immediately pointed out to us the interest of the discovery.
"From the end of December 1931 to the end of January 1932, R. de Wavrin, who left the village of Becerril, on the Colombian slope of the Perijá Cordillera, established contact in turn with the Maraká, of whom he has published two photographs (which appear on pages 208 and 256 of his book). The last one is interesting because the Belgian traveler, who has a height of 1.80 mts., stands out from the middle of a group of pygmies, so it can be seen that, as he himself says in his work (pp. 304-305) the tallest men did not reach his chest and the women did not go beyond his waist.
"Confirming his words, he writes to us that he amused himself by making his Maraka friends pass under his outstretched arm, sin\sin that none of them needed to stoop.
"The Belgian traveler insists on the fact that the Maraka are absolutely normal from the physical point of view.
"In December 1935, R. de Wavrin, leaving Machiques on the Venezuelan slope of the Perijá Cordillera, met some Pygmy Indians in Irapá, who told him that they were originally from the Maraká tribe, with whom relations and unions were frequent. The Motilones of Irapá call the Maraká Marakachitos.
"In 1936 Bolinder, accompanied by his wife, settled in San Jenaro, 1,200 mts . above sea level, among the Maraká [Lam. XII, b) and c)] and, in January, succeeded in the feat of crossing the Cordillera de Perijá; in the company of some Indians of this tribe, he crossed the territory of a tribe of Motilones of normal stature, the Sikakao or Pshikakao, friends of the Maraká. At this stage of the journey, the Maraka abandoned him, because they feared the Indians whose domains they were about to cross, to finally reach that of the Rionegrinos, who occupy the Negro River and the village of Machiques. The author has recorded his observations in two excellent books, abundantly illustrated with photographs of pygmy men and women. These photographs are found on pages 176, 179, 184, 186, 188, 189, 191, 193, 197 and 199 of the first book. Among them, the photograph on page 193 is particularly interesting because the author, who is 1.83 meters tall, appears next to an Indian and a squaw, which allows us to appreciate his extremely small stature. In the second work, the photographs of pygmies are published on page 193.
The photograph on p. 32 shows the brave wife of the observer, whose height is 5'6", standing next to a pygmy woman.
"Bolinder found with the Maraka, as a prisoner of war, a Socomba Indian, who had a height of 1.65 meters, the last survivor of a tribe of normal Motilons exterminated by the Pygmies; this fact denotes that they possess a combativeness little compatible with a physical degeneration of any kind whatsoever.
"In December 1947-January 1948 J. M. Cruzent, who was traveling, like R. de Wavrin, on the Venezuelan side of the Perijá Cordillera, met and photographed, on the upper Irapá, a tributary of the Tukukú, a region where the Pshikakao (mentioned by Bolinder) live, some bearded Indians of very small stature, who were evidently Marakás.
"J. M. Cruxent communicated the measurements he made, in the course of his trip, to Eduardo Fleury-Cuello, who published them. These measurements were taken on the Indians of the Cordillera de Perijá from Ayapa, Shupata and Shirapa, Irapá and Mipiripia.
"The heights observed in each of these groups are as follows:
"Two of these groups correspond to motilones of normal stature, the ayapa and the irapá, and two to pygmy motilones, the mipiripia and the shirapa (Láminas XV and XV). These pygmies did not show any sign of degeneration.
"All these testimonies and documents establish, without the slightest doubt, that the Maraka justly deserve the qualification of 'pygmies', because of their stature, but there the similarity with the other dwarf populations of Asia and Oceania is interrupted. Because of the features of their face and the characteristics of their hair, the Maraká, in
Indeed, they are related to other motilons of normal stature whose language they speak. They are in no way negroid and some have beards and mustaches like these.
"In summary, given the present state of our knowledge, we can say that the South American region where Pygmy Indians exist or have existed, is the vast territory that extends north of the Amazon, comprising a part of the Orinoco basin and that, to the West, extends to the Perijá Mountain Range, the Goajira Peninsula and even to the upper Sinú Valley and the Darién.
"The existence of the current homogeneous pygmy group of the Maraka raises a particularly difficult problem to solve. R. de Wavrin gives, with reservations, the hypothesis that the Maraka are Indians degenerated by consanguinity and by the frequency of unions between brothers. Father Gusinde, who has visited the Yupa and has found among them some individuals of small stature, speaks of a degeneration originated by a defective feeding. To tell the truth, the Maraka do not give, in any way, the impression of degeneracy and all that travelers report about their hunting and fishing skills, their physical resistance, even their combativeness, do not speak in favor of this hypothesis. In fact, the hypothesis of a degeneration does not seem acceptable. It would be difficult to understand that it is limited to a given group and has not reached neighboring groups living in similar conditions. On the other hand, if the tendency to dwarfism were the result of a miserable and precarious life, it should be found in all tribes subjected to such a harsh lifestyle as that of the Maraka, for example the Quechua and the Aymara of the Andean highlands. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that the diet only has a very limited effect on stature.
"As we see it, the problem of the American pygmy must be placed in the overall problem of the pygmy race.
"The existence of Negroid populations of small stature is known in Africa, in Malaysia, in New Guinea, in the Malaysian and Indochinese peninsulas and in the Andaman Islands.
"In Asia, Canon Jules Détry found groups of pygmies in October 1947, in Upper Burma, in Khiongul (Troun), between 28 and 29 degrees North latitude and 97 and 99 degrees East longitude, at the sources of the Irawaddy; the missionary traveled for a month in his country, called khiou-kiang; he insists on the non-Negroid character of these pygmies whose type resembles the Burmese type and not the Dravidian type. The face is full with a slight Mongoloid aspect. The height varies between 1.35 and 1.50 meters; the hair is black and straight, the nose is regular,
the color of their skin is coppery, lighter in women than in men. The facts that Canon Détry has been kind enough to relate to us, and the quality of an informed observer and connoisseur of the African pygmies of the same, demonstrate in an absolutely certain way that in Asia there is, at least, a pygmy islet not negroid.
"Europe has also known pygmy populations. It is now more than half a century since J. Kollman pointed out the existence of normal individuals, of very small stature, in Switzerland, France and Germany, in the Neolithic period, in the Bronze Age, in Roman times and even in modern times in Sicily. The work of the Swiss scholar deserves, in our opinion, to be taken into consideration again qquad\qquad [...].
"Human evolution thus offers us facts identical to those of animal evolution. The American pygmy may have been the result of a mutation that would have occurred in America itself: it may also come from the integration of a group of pygmies from the Old Continent in one of the multiple migrations that have contributed to the settlement of the New World."
The quotation has been long, but it was necessary for us to have an overview of the problem, even though the critics may say that the author's point of view is too favorable to the existence of these American pygmies. We reply that, as we are too, we remain calm.
What we have just said does not mean that we are in complete agreement with Rivet, especially in his last lines, when he tells us that these American pygmies could be the product of a mutation produced on the continent, which we openly reject.
We have two monographs dedicated to the problem of the pygmies in America, both by the same authors that we have cited when dealing with the problem of the American blacks, that is, Armando Vivante and Juan Comas. We will begin with the latter, whose monograph is entitled _(G){ }_{G} Pygmies in America?", published in 1960. The position of this author is completely negative as to the possible existence of those American pygmies, notwithstanding which he provides us with materials that demonstrate well their existence. We will quote him:
"Reichel Dolmatoff has lived for two seasons in the Motilones region and while his research work was primarily
of ethnographic nature, includes somatic data that should be taken into account. The first study (1945) was carried out in the area of the Yuko or tame Motilones; specifically among the Maracá tribe in the basin of the river of that name, a tributary of the César River. And our author says: 'the Motilones [the Maracá in this case] can almost be called a people of pygmies'; 'their average height reaches barely 1.35 m . and exceptionally 1.40 to 1.45 m .' 'However, the Kunaguasaya [i.e., the Motilones bravos of the Catatumbo region] have a somewhat taller stature than the Yuko, probably due to more favorable living conditions because of the resources offered by the rivers'... 'The small stature of the Yuko may also be a phenomenon of selection; in many cases malnutrition can be observed among the Yuko, which is reflected in a weak general constitution.'
"But he goes on to state that in the Yuko Motilons 'the trunk is well proportioned, muscular and the very broad shoulders sometimes give the impression of heaviness'; 'in general the Motilon Indian presents a well-formed type.' The excellent photographs accompanying this work corroborate the last statement. The author does not indicate the number of individuals to whom the average of 1.35 m. he mentions corresponds." (Ob. cit., pp. 19-20).
We see that the author manages to put a "barb" against, at the end of the quote, but the fact is that Reichel Dolmatoff is for us the most serious researcher we know, in Colombia.
Comas presents, at the end of his work, his Conclusions, which are reproduced in part below:
"What has been said allows us to reach certain tentative conclusions:
"The concept of 'pygmy' implies, for adult males, not only a height of less than 150 cm. but also a whole series of somatic and even cultural traits that differentiate and specialize the group.
"The examination of the various historical and contemporary information about the characteristics of the Indians... allows us to reject for the moment the supposed existence of pygmy groups in South America. [...]
"4. There is sufficient information to prove that among the Yupa of the Sierra de Perijá, the historical Ayamanes and their descendants in the State of Lara (Venezuela) and the Shirishana in the upper Ventuari (Orinoco), there are relatively frequent cases of 'dwarfism', that is, of normal individuals, without pathological characteristics, that
in adult males are less than 150 cm . and in adult females are less than 140 cm . [...].
"6. There is a lack of extensive biological research to determine the why and how of the frequent appearance of 'dwarf' individuals (size less than 150 cm) among the Yupa, Ayamanes and Shirishana, the only ones verified to date. (Ob. cit., pp. 33-34).
We see that the author easily gets rid of these American Pygmy peoples, considering them as dwarfs, which is a very different thing. In his Point 1, he demands that any human group that pretends to be considered Pygmy must have "Negroid" characteristics and respective culture. Both of these things we consider contrary to an objective position, in a good investigation; even the second one is totally out of the case: culture cannot be confused with race.
We move on to our second author, Vivante. His extensive monograph, entitled Current State of the Discussion on the American Pygmies, of 1963 -that is, subsequent to Comas' monograph- is full of important reports, of which we will only be able to deal with a few. In fact, this subject would require the length of a good chapter, which we cannot devote to it here. We will limit ourselves to a few loose quotations, it seems. We begin:
"In a relatively recent study Morris Steggerda.
(1943:13) presents the following list of South American tribes with
height below 1550 mm, that is to say that, according to the
Martin's table would include the very small heights and
small:
Aruaco
1450
Guayaquí
1510
Chipaya
1450
Guarani
1530
Chilote
1460
Umaua
1537
Conebo
1470
Mura
1540
Ticuna
1490
Puri
1540
San Blas
1499
Bare
1545
Goajiro
1509
Caingua
1545
Tembe
1509
Cradle
1549."
"En un estudio relativamente reciente Morris Steggerda
(1943:13) presenta la siguiente lista de tribus sudamericanas con
estatura por debajo de los 1550 mm , es decir que, de acuerdo a la
tabla de Martin comprendería las estaturas muy pequeñas y
pequeñas:
Aruaco 1450 Guayaquí 1510
Chipaya 1450 Guaraní 1530
Chilote 1460 Umaua 1537
Conebo 1470 Mura 1540
Ticuna 1490 Puri 1540
San Blas 1499 Bare 1545
Goajiro 1509 Caingua 1545
Tembe 1509 Cuna 1549."| "En un estudio relativamente reciente Morris Steggerda | | | |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| (1943:13) presenta la siguiente lista de tribus sudamericanas con | | | |
| estatura por debajo de los 1550 mm , es decir que, de acuerdo a la | | | |
| tabla de Martin comprendería las estaturas muy pequeñas y | | | |
| pequeñas: | | | |
| Aruaco | 1450 | Guayaquí | 1510 |
| Chipaya | 1450 | Guaraní | 1530 |
| Chilote | 1460 | Umaua | 1537 |
| Conebo | 1470 | Mura | 1540 |
| Ticuna | 1490 | Puri | 1540 |
| San Blas | 1499 | Bare | 1545 |
| Goajiro | 1509 | Caingua | 1545 |
| Tembe | 1509 | Cuna | 1549." |
(Ob. cit., p. 202).
This table is quite serious, since it provides us with the
names of ten yy six tribes of pygmy and pygmoid stature, six of them belonging to the properly pygmy stature, while the yupa, ayamanes, etc., treated above, do not appear at all. It is true that some of these groups can be discussed, as Comas does, but most of them are well established.
We are particularly interested in the pygmy individuals existing in the Andean zone, because of the experience we have of it, in Bolivia. A suitable reference comes from page 226 of the monograph we are dealing with, in 1916:
"The same year H. B. Ferris published a series of anthropometric data on the Indians of Cuzco and Apurimac, data that are of interest because in the literature on our subject the Indians of this region are mentioned more than once as being of very short stature; the most general averages assigned to the Andean peoples (Imbelloni) can be set between 1590 to 1620 mm. Choosing the most relevant specimens, Ferris (1916: 110118) offers the following, among one hundred and forty-five subjects measured (those transcribed here are all men):
Number 41 pure Huaypo ... 1422 mm.
Number 65 pure Sabayno ... 1499 mm .
Number 80 pure Cuzco ... 1466 mm .
Number 81 pure Machupicchu ... 1435 mm .
Number 101 pure Huadquiña ... 1497 mm .
Number 103 pure of Cotabambas ... 1458 mm .
Number 108 Santa Ana hybrid ... 1337 mm .
Number 109 Santa Ana hybrid ... 1491 mm.
Number 117 pure Hurocondo... 1488 mm."
We consider that nine individuals of pygmy stature in 145, is an appreciable percentage of the possible existence of a pygmy race that may have been absorbed by later populations, but that continues to reproduce itself directly and also by the crossing among themselves, of the individuals that may have that element, in recessive form. This last point is also made directly by Vivante, who tells us: "the existence of a very ancient pygmy background that emerges genetically by the re-crossing of recessives, etc." (p. 229). The same is repeated at greater length on page 249, the tenor of which we transcribe:
"Moving on to the way of understanding the available data, it is remarkable to see how the supporters of the negative thesis explain the cases of very low sizes by mutation, degeneration or demogenetic neoformation, in the latter case not taking into account the age of exhumed skeletons and skulls. At no time - as we have pointed out more than once - has the possibility been taken into account that they are expressions of men-delian remnants, outcrops, recreations of form or forms of low stature already absorbed; thus, the cases of extreme short stature, would be manifest segments of a pure line intensely hidden in the hybridization. Even this possibility, as we have concluded, would lead to think that the pygmy substratum can be substratum, in the same terms some authors pose the problem of the pygmies on a universal level or, simply, the case of the African pygmies, already so heterogeneous in the same iconography of Lidio Cipriani.
"Thus focused, the interpretation of the most accentuated lower carvings would totally change meaning yy , instead of being decadent forms, or in generation, they would be witnesses of an archaic reality or, simply, of a broken racial reality and of dispersed fragments. And this last qualification, recalls another fault of the advocates of both theses: not to take into account, as an exegetical guideline, the circumstance of occurrence of the lowest carvings in groups, isolated, residual, with all that this means biologically and ethnologically."
We surprisingly agree with what is expressed here, except with his last lines, because the Andean pygmies are not isolated, but evidently the author was thinking of primitive culture groups when he wrote those lines.
Vivante also deals a lot with microcephalic skulls, but we have not transcribed this in order to continue to follow Birdsell's methods. We have found in Bolivia numerous skulls that have a very low capacity, even less than 1,000 cc. and that, in principle, would have to belong to pygmies, without denying the fact that there are people of taller stature, with very small skulls.
Finally, it is up to us to briefly state our experience in this case. In Bolivia -especially in the region of Cochabamba and in the city itself- there are numerous individuals of completely pygmy stature, like those cited in Ferris' series for Cuzco. Naturally, they are a minority - not greater than those cited by Ferris - but they are
can distinguish them well, especially when walking through the popular markets. The women are of extraordinarily short stature, with some frequency not greater than 130 cm. In their color and general features, they do not differ from the other local Indians, a fact that is also noted, as we have seen, for all the other pygmy individuals of the continent.
But, and this is a very important but, there is a feature that distinguishes most of them; it is the fact that they belong, in our classification, to the human type F-2 and some F-3, a feature that does not appear frequently among local Indians of normal size and that, in this case, indicates a difference of extreme importance.
Having discovered this some time ago, we examined the illustrations that we possess on the indigenous pygmies of Colombia, previously treated. Some of them are reproduced here. The result is valuable, because again almost all belong to the same group F-2; at most some to F-3.
This brings us back to something that has already been slightly discussed. Among the Sirionó of Bolivia, in one case among the Guayaquí of Paraguay and in several among the Waika - all of them basically Amurian-Caucasoid - one finds women of short stature and who differ from their respective men in having features rather of a type which we would say protomongoloid. These women are F-2 in our classification, while many of the men are H-2.
The inevitable result of the above facts is that there is a strong possibility that there was an American population prior to the Amurian-Caucasoids presented by Birdsell, which would have been absorbed in part by those Amurians, by eliminating the men and keeping their women, while in other regions, it would continue until later times, until it was also absorbed by other migrated peoples in later times. They would be directly the first population of our continent.
Recall that Birdsell puts as first settlers of the Occidentals regions his Negritos, which proxisamespote are F-2 in our classification: the Murraşans and Carpenters would later arrive in those regions and, exactly, the same-110 would have happened in America.
4. The true Mongoloid races in America.
We are here at one of the most difficult points of our work: to be able to discriminate the true Mongoloid races that exist in the native population of America, despite the fact that apparently that should be the easiest thing to do, since all authors agree that the Mongoloid element is the dominant one in the indigenous races.
That is what we also believed, until the examination of the facts, obligatorily led us to change our way of thinking. It is absolutely manifest and very clear that there are outwardly dominant mongoloid traits in the indigenous races, as has been said by more than one author - we will quote Imbelloni in particular - but groups of populations in which most of their traits are frankly mongoloid are not easy to find.
The main and basic problem is that we really do not know, better yet, it is not known in science, what the yellow or Mongoloid race is. We have more than a dozen works, some by renowned authors, dealing with physical anthropology. In them they describe the various races that are supposed to be Mongoloid, but they forget to give us a good definition of what would be basically the Mongoloid or yellow race, considered as a whole. Undoubtedly this is not easy, but the truth is that there is no human group that is considered by all the authors as pure Mongoloid. That makes things very difficult. Besides, we have already seen extensively that Birdsell himself shows us the Mongoloids as derived from a specialization, produced by arctic influences, of an Amurian Caucasoid group.
Considering the Chinese as the prototype of the yellow race does not clarify anything for us, since in China there are very diverse human types, starting with the quite evident difference between the Chinese of the North and the South; so we must abandon the idea of a clear classification and definition of what a mongoloid is. Head measurements are of no use to us, in this case, for among those who are supposed to be Mongoloids there is - as in the two other so-called great races (whites and blacks) - from extreme brachycephaly to the
ultradolicocephaly, the latter trait, which at first appears as antimongoloid and which, to be found, must be found in the Eskimos.
Mongoloid details - especially in external features - we find several, starting with black hair, thick and straight, of round section, which is widely spread in America, as we have seen; but at the same time we have also seen that in America there is an abundance of dark brown hair, with an obvious oval section and slightly wavy, a fact that we try not to take into account. As for the color, the supposed yellow color is something that does not really exist, and what is called as such is a tone coming from the fact of having a scarce amount of melanin which gives a white-matte to white-brown tone. Anyone can realize it, thinking a little in the color of a Japanese, better Japanese, you know. And in this regard we add that most of them have our personal color, which is a dull-white; we know several Japanese women who are whiter than we are. Among the American Indians, the color varies from a brownish-white to a manifest brown, even quite dark, somewhat chocolate-colored, as occurs in most cases in the Andean zone and in the Chaco. The Amazonian individuals that we know are of a much lighter brown color.
The protruding cheekbones are supposed to be a mongoloid characteristic, but the truth is that this is generally confused with the fact that the face is thrown forward, so that these cheekbones stand out more; but this feature does not appear in all the so-called Asian mongoloids and, as for America, it is also something that is far from being something constant. It is most likely that this feature appears in much less than half of the individuals, according to what we know from visu and the illustrations we have. Most of the Indians appear to us to have a face that is moderately forward and not too much forward, as the yellows are supposed to be.
Of the nose, we have already seen a few. In America, the most common are straight noses, of a size that tends to be quite large, with a base that varies in width according to the degree of development of the individuals and that, at the same time, seems to have
RACIAL TYPES OF INDIGENOUS AMERICA. Fig. 1: Indian of the Cuna tribe of Panama, the main Mongoloid type in indigenous America (Andido), although it is classified among the Isthmids. According to Steggerda, Handbook, etc. Fig. 2: Mapuche or Araucanian Chief, according to Henckel (Handbook, etc.); his racial type is not Andid -where the Araucanians are generally classified- but clearly the Athabascan type described by Hrdligka. Figs. 3 and 4: Bororo Indians of Matto Grosso, according to Steggerda, male and female, a racial form which, in that indigenous nation, exists alongside a pampid type. It is another racial form clearly mongoloid, but that does not exist in Siberia and sl in Bomeo and surroundings and extends until the Gê, in Brazil. Its origin in America must be through the oceanic route.
little relation with the width of the face. The concave noses, sunken at their base following a curvature from their tip, are only present in America in a small minority; their exaggerated shape, where their nasal cleft does not exceed the cheekbones, is not very pronounced.
-as it appears in some Mongolians and Siberians- we have never seen it among the Indians. As for the aquiline nose, we already know well that it only appears in the American high cultures, besides its expansion among the North American Prairie Indians, always in the ruling classes.
What, then, is the Mongolian thing that exists in America? The answer has already been given throughout this work. There are two traits that have allowed us to assume the absolute dominance of the Mongoloid or yellow race in our continent. They are the black and straight hair, of cylindrical section and the more or less complete lack of beard and mustache, which appears manifest in the majority of the natives. The mongoloid fold is absent in the great majority of the natives. Here it is appropriate to report that it is common in many parts of Africa, for example in the area of Senegal, where it comes to exist in a 70%70 \% of individuals and, even more so, among the Bushmen of South Africa; this has led one anthropologist to classify that people as protomongoloid. The malo-marginal fold - as opposed to the internal fold, which is the true Mongoloid - is much more common among the indigenous people, than the Mongoloid, and is also common in a large part of the H-type Caucasoids. That fold is very rare in FF individuals, of whatever race they may be.
We leave aside other features, such as the shape of the mouth, the thickness of the lips, the shape of the chin, etc., which in principle can clarify little or nothing.
We are faced with the problem of being able to better define the existence of the Mongoloid race in America. The first thing we must answer is that we do not pretend to clarify completely the whole American picture of the case, just as we have not pretended to clarify completely the problem of the Caucasoid races in Negroid individuals, which are present in America. It is possible that, by examining an abundant series of American skulls -especially those of pre-Columbian origin- and their necessary illustrations, in order to be able to see well the non-measurable features of form, this could be better clarified, but we have already said that we renounce this method of study and we have dedicated ourselves more especially to the problem that results from the Indians we have seen and the illustrations we present, since they give the readers the evidence of what we are saying.
Concretizing the case, we have that, apart from the very probable pygmy peoples that appear in America -and that seem to have preponderant protomongoloid traits- we then have the Amurians, who are caucasoid and would have spread throughout most of America; then the first mongoloid traits appear, as external dominant traits, in the superior hunters of great size, such as the planarids and the pampas, which also exist as substrata (with size and height diminished by the mixtures) in all the Andean zone (we have found numerous skulls of them and there are living ones). Their characteristic physical features show us a face with forms that seem to have a Caucasoid base, but already dominated by the external features of color, hair shape and color, as well as by the disappearance of the beard.
They are not well described yet, because when describing the Andean race, it has been described as the result of some average terms in which very diverse human types are unified. Their general features are much more mongoloid than those of the pampas, treated before and show a physiognomy, this time, frankly of the type of what is generally considered as mongoloid, that is to say, belonging to one of the diverse races very different among them, which are considered to be members of the great yellow race.
Their hair is black and straight, of undoubtedly cylindrical section; the cheekbones are quite protruding and somewhat thrown forward, although they never reach the height of the base of the nose, which, in turn, is large and straight, evidently long, of relatively narrow base and little sunken at its base, both in the living individual and in the skulls; the eyes, in general are slightly oblique and do not present the Mongolian fold but the external fold, which in the aged individuals comes to cover most of the upper part of the eye. The beard and the mustache only appear in old men, in a weak manifestation that never reaches the region of the cheeks.
The human type to which these individuals belong is, for our classification, H-3 and H-4; it does not exceed the last number. Interpretatively, their access to the Americas must correspond to
INDONESIANS IN AMERICA. Young mother of the Cawahib tribe of Matto Grosso, Tupl-Guaranl family. Her basic features are of Mediterranean Caucasoid type, something that is well noticed, comparing her with the nearby illustration that shows a Bororo woman, clearly Mongoloid. Her hair is wavy, as can be seen, unlike the Mongoloid woman, who has straight hair. Her features are very fine and correspond to the most developed Indonesians, at the same time that her origin towards America had to follow the oceanic route. According to Lévi-Strauss, Handbook, etc.
an entry through Bering, at a time apparently later than the arrival of the large human types, such as the planarids and the pampas.
We repeat, we consider this race to be fully mongoloid.
There is also - we have already spoken a little about it - another race of a very different Mongoloid type, which is expressed, in the first place, by its belonging to a human type clearly corresponding to the F-4, on average, of our classification. It is found especially among the Bororós of Matto Grosso (in women as well as in men), although among the Bororós there also exist in abundance individuals of the pámpida race; then it is found among the peoples of the Gê languages (considered as láguidos by Imbelloni and Canals Frau, which is manifestly erroneous), such as the Apinagé and the Sherente. They have black and straight hair; the face is frankly thrown forward, so that the cheekbones are well protruding, the nose is concave - quite wide at its lower end and also quite sunken at its base, which also makes the cheekbones stand out more - the eyes are quite slanted and the presence of the Mongolian fold dominates in them. The whole appearance of these individuals tends to be rather small and delicate; in women, the face is extremely pleasant. There are also the American Indonesians, of whom we have already spoken and whom numerous authors today consider (the Indonesians of Indonesia) as Mongoloids. We, together with the old Quatrefages and the modern Montandon, prefer to consider them more akin to the Caucasoid Mediterraneans, without denying that they sometimes present a slight Mongolian mixture. Their human type is also F - perhaps with another F-4 base - but they often show F-5 and F-6 types. Their hair tends to be brown and slightly wavy. The description of this human type does not apply here.
There are other indigenous types with Mongoloid features, but their description is not as clear as the two we have just described, because we have materials that still seem insufficient.
Conclusions
1. The purposes of this work
We began to write this work in order to shed some light on the existence of numerous Native American individuals, both present and from ancient representations, who appeared to have an abundant beard and moustache and were not well explained in the racial classifications of Native Americans that we knew and that we have, in part, summarized.
There are numerous authors who speak of the existence of individuals and, sometimes, of true white or Caucasian races in indigenous America, but at the same time all of them have been considered as of very secondary importance by official and serious investigators, if not simply as fantasists. From our point of view at least, they should be considered for the most part as true pioneers, who have had more insight into the subject than these official researchers. They had seen "something" that the traditional science refused to see.
The American researcher Birdsell -whom we have transcribed extensively in his monograph- has provided us with a basis or starting point from which we were able to face with probabilities of success the elucidation of the problem which, of course, we do not consider complete, but just faced in a better way than what has been done so far. The final results have even surpassed in several features those we expected to obtain at the beginning of our work.
However, there is still a long way to go to clarify all the problems presented to us here. First of all,
it is necessary to examine in detail the very numerous works on bone physical anthropology -especially skulls- to see which of the measurements used in their description can really be useful, especially those that can be related to Mendel's Laws of Inheritance, apart from those that are only numerical figures. We have not wanted to confront this - which is not too easy - in order to adjust ourselves as far as possible to the methodological interpretative system of Birdsell, to whom we have to be deeply grateful for his system, since its application has given us the best results.
In all the interpretative findings, we have had to depart a lot from the method of work and system of description of the indigenous races used by Imbelloni and Canals Frau, since they fundamentally start from geographical territories, to define their races, a guideline that they have taken especially from the interpretative system of the German researcher von Eicksted. The interpretative system of: "Give me geographical territories and I will give you races", never seemed convincing to us. This interpretative idea comes from the Natural Sciences and seems to apply quite well to animals and plants in their natural state, but it so happens that, as far as man is concerned, we are dealing rather with a species in a domestic state.
Imbelloni and Canals Frau, in their racial description, used mainly geographical territories, although this is well disguised by the preponderant use of anthropological measures in the living and in the bones, which, externally, appears as if it were the main or first line. In this interpretative system, the average terms of the measurements used are used in a dominant way, which deserves our complete rejection, because this completely eliminates the minorities, which are present everywhere and come from older populations as well as from more recent contributions. In fact, as a general rule, it seems to us that the result of these "mean terms" does not even represent the majority of the population in the case, as is quite evident, especially in the Andean and Amazon regions.
In his work, Birdsell presents us with a detailed and good study of the most important ancient Asian and Australian populations.
recent. From our point of view, he has the fault of completely rejecting anthropological measurements -especially of skulls- which allows him to make a very simple and apparently clear picture of the elements that intervened primarily in the population of our continent. Thus, he can reject, in principle, that a race of tall skulls (the carpenters) and another of small size (the pygmies) could have populated the Asian region of Siberia, despite the presence of two tall female skulls in the Upper Cave of Chu-kutien. But in the most ancient America there already appear those individuals with tall skulls, as we can see in the finding of the skull of Confins in Brazil, tall and with good laguid-Carpentine features, which in no way can be confused with its Amurian and Mongolian elements. The existence of a race of pygmy type - we will better call it pygmoid, to temper a possible exaggeration - which would apparently be pre-Amurian, on the continent, is also very probable. The carpentarial types would occupy, in this group, a third place.
It is important to make here a review of the possible culture of these first populations of our continent. These things have always been looked at from a point of view coming from the results of the study of prehistory made in Western Europe, where, in the Lower Paleolithic, the Acheulean hand axe cultures dominate; but already in Eastern Europe, in prehistory, the cultures of flakes dominate, which extend throughout Central and Northern Asia and are the ones that, logically, would have had to reach America with the Amurians. Their classic type begins, even, in Northern Europe, with the Clactonian culture of England; from there, with varied forms, it extends continuously until North China; if a population of pygmoid type arrived to our continent, it had to bring a different cultural type, which we seem to see in the culture of pebbles and clasts of Southeast Asia.
The Amurians and the carpenters had to bring flake cultures, undoubtedly already more developed and belonging to the Middle Paleolithic. Together, they would also have used pebble tools, which always exist together with flake tools. These cultures are already well known in
America, its antiquity is high, to somewhat exceed 40,000 years, but there is no lack of researchers who still deny its existence on our continent.
Hand axes are somewhat late, in their first appearance in America, and seem to be related to a late Mousterian culture, which appears together with the large-sized individuals, the pampas-planarids, who would correspond to the end of the Middle Paleolithic, who bring preponderantly the asymmetrical bifacial knives and the first stone spearheads.
2. The succession of the American Indian races.
In the first place, from the beginning we make it clear that in no way do we maintain that the various races we are dealing with must have arrived in pure form on our continent. On the contrary, all of them have had to drag diverse forms in minorities, both more ancient and more recent; the problem intensifies, as we approach closer times.
Another aspect of the problem is that we have much more research and descriptions on the older races of the continent, but for those considered to be of more recent origin (no matter by what route) the studies are much scarcer and, in truth, do not provide us with a sufficiently clear picture of the case.
It is also the case - strange as it may seem at first - that we still do not have a good description of any of the Mongoloid-type races present in America, nor the date or possible dates of their first presence on the continent. The latter, naturally, will have to be studied with the bone materials that have been found and will be found, even though this is contrary to Birdsell's doctrines. In this respect, as we have seen in the transcript of that author, the Mongoloid population of America would have to go back to an antiquity of only between 5,000 and 10,000 years before the Era; the radiocarbon dates indicate that the continent was populated a little more than 40,000 years before Christ.
Entering already in the matter of this title - and according to everything presented in the body of the work - we consider that, in America, there are a series of races very different from each other in the majority of the cases and that also their origin is diverse. The oldest populations have uniformly entered by way of the Bering Strait (we expressly exclude the route cited by several authors, such as Hrdliça and Canals Frau, from the Aleutian Islands, as we consider it impossible; there is too much sea there, for the peoples we are dealing with) and their first origin dates back to no less than 40,000 years before the Era, better we say-according to what we conceive-to no less than the end of the last interglacial, which means adding considerably more than 20,000 years to the figure expressed.
The summary that we make of the indigenous races studied is, naturally, provisional, since there is much more material to study, but the object of our present work has not been at any time to clarify everything, but only to obtain a general outline of what seems clearer, in a complex panorama. This summary is as follows:
I. Indigenous races coming by way of Bering:
A first population would seem to correspond to a pygmoid population -which in our classification corresponds to human types F-2 and F-3- widely dispersed in the continent and, more especially, in the Andean zone as far as Venezuela. This population has been much discussed and denied by various authors, but its current existence is unquestionable, even though many of its representatives may come from reconstructions by atavistic recombinations, which certainly would not give its original external physical form in its entirety. Anthropologically they would correspond - according to us - to the oceanic Negrito of Birdsell, but with rather protomongoloid than negritoid features. Their antiquity as the first settlers of the continent is hinted at by their dominant presence in the Sirionó and Waia women, which would indicate that the dominant Amurians in those peoples absorbed an earlier population of women, eliminating their men.
Birdsell's Amurians follow, whose provenance and description seem to us to be among the best achieved, both in Birdsell's study and in ours; Birdsell notes their existence only in the Californian region, but we have
We have managed to add the Guayaquí population of Paraguay, because it seems to us that it undoubtedly corresponds to it; in a weakened form the same type is found among the Waias, while it reappears in individuals in many other parts of America - especially in South America - without forming populations, so that in most cases it may come from atavistic recombinations. Its females, on the other hand, appear in many regions even as the dominant form of the population; the same previous process of extermination of the males by the later emigrants would have been repeated.
As in Australia, carpenters would occupy the third place in the first American populations. Despite Birdsell's refusal to recognize their existence in America, their presence is easily denounced in the cranial measurements, starting with the great height of the skull, the width of the cheekbones - greater than the cranial width - the wide subnasal space and the roof-shaped skull vault, not a curved vault. Their typical description is given by Imbelloni and Canals Frau for the laguids, but that population seems to have completely lost the beard, we do not know if by intense mixing with the protomongoloid pygmoids or with later mongoloids; it would be necessary to examine abundant photographs of their females, to try to solve the case. The huárpidos of Canals Frau, with similar characteristics, have conserved the beard, but they have disappeared and we cannot control them, since we only have a not very abundant series of old skulls and descriptions of the chroniclers. However, in the form of isolated individuals, they reappear today throughout the continent, characteristically in the form of human type H-1, very different from the Amurian H-2.
The following American population would be that of the hunters of large physical size, a species of American chromagnoids, as Menghin points out, represented especially by the planarids and pampasids, which would be Caucasoids with a Mongolian mixture in their external features of skin color and hair color and shape; this Mongolian mixture would have made the beard and mustache disappear. Their human type is always H, but their most primitive forms are H-3, even with classic neanderthaloid features (which we suppose is a minority carryover of their most primitive forms), while the dominant in them are H-4, with some H-5, which we do not know if they come from later mixtures. Their original culture, for us, would be a developed Mousterian (perhaps a form of Clactonian, corresponding to a final Mousterian), of which numerous sites are already known throughout the continent. Its time of entry into the continent would date back to the end of the last interstadial of the last glacial period, that is, approximately 25,000 years BC. C.
All this was followed by the invasion of the continent by populations undoubtedly of dominant Mongoloid origin. It must have taken place shortly after the retreat of the ice, because a corridor was opened between the ice of Canada. Strangely enough, their race or races are or figure among the least known or described of the continent; the Andids, undoubtedly, are among them, but they are not the only ones. It occurs to us that, in Morton's description of the "Toltec" race, of which Hrdliçka tells us, an interesting description of the whole, which naturally should not be called "Toltec," may be found. The geographical territory covered by that race, in Hrdliçka's brief description, coincides quite well with the places in America where the most abundant Mongoloid traits appear. The Andids - or rather, those we consider as such - in our classification are preponderantly H-4, with abundant H-3, among them. This race better, set of races - may have arrived to our continent in one or more migrations, at the same time that local groups would be formed, by mixture with the previous populations and then, later, later. Their culture would correspond to the Siberian Upper Paleolithic, or better to the Mesolithic.
The last racial group arrived by way of Bering to America is constituted by the Athabascans described by Hrdliçka and absolutely misunderstood by Imbelloni and Canals Frau, following a similar error of von Eicksted, who confused them with the Columbids. In our classification they are H-5 individuals and abundant H-6; their original culture seems to be a Siberian Mesolithic, already somewhat neolithic, of arctic hunters provided with protorrachettes to walk on snow. Their physical features show a developed Caucasoid form with abundant Mongolian admixture, for which they have lost the beard and mustache. At present, in North America they are represented particularly by the Athabascan-speaking peoples, with the Navajo and Apache, but they have spread beyond these languages and have contributed to form part of the Prairie peoples. Their entry through Bering is the last, before the Eskimo. A small group of them went as far as South America - before the first oceanic migrations, naturally - influenced the peoples of the Chaco and Patagonia, at the same time that they ended up forming the basic nucleus of the historical Araucanians.
Of the races cited above, the only one that we believe is not certain in the succession presented is the first, that of the Pigmoids, whose original culture would be of pebbles. We have placed it in that position of being the first American population, on the basis of two facts which would point to that: first, the comparison with the settlement of Australia which makes us
Birdsell and secondly, the referred fact of its appearance in abundant Sirionó Gaika females, which would indicate that it is an earlier population, absorbed by the Amurians, in both cases.
New populations follow, this time arriving by the other route.
II. Indigenous populations coming from the Pacific route:
We have here a first population with frankly Mongoloid traits, which still lacks a name and which does not appear, consequently, in any of the American racial descriptions that we have transcribed and that we know of. Its origin by the oceanic route is indicated by the fact that its individuals are completely absent, as far as we know, in North America, while in South America the illustrations we possess indicate that they exist today only in places of Amazonia, of primitive agricultural culture. In Indonesia there are similar forms, especially in Borneo. Of course, among them there is more than one physiognomy, but the one we consider most typical appears among the Bororós of Matto Grosso, and among the true Gê-speaking peoples. Their human type is typically F-4, without lacking less developed F forms; perhaps some H-4 individuals of proto-Indonesian type came along with them, which is not easy to classify. The most probable thing is that the culture that they present now, is very impoverished with respect to its original level.
Much more widespread in Central and South America are the true Indonesians, whose human type is F-4-5-6, which are completely missing in America, north of Mexico. None of the racial descriptions of Imbelloni and Canals Frau correspond to them, although both speak of Indonesians, because they describe human types H instead of F - like the ones we are dealing with - and which are small with delicate features. The statuettes of the Valdivia culture of Ecuador would correspond to this human type and, possibly, also to the previous type. Archaeologically, in the series of skulls that we know, they appear with abundance in Cocle in Panama, in Nazca, the Nazcoid of Bolivia and among some Araucanian groups. Their original culture would have to be a highly developed Neolithic, with strong influences of the urban culture of the early Bronze Age. Physically, they are a graceful form, akin to the Mediterranean race, Caucasoid, but already mixed with Mongoloid features that have made them lose their beards.
The last breed to arrive on our continent is fully Caucasoid, with a large aquiline nose. It can be found at
corresponds with the Armenoid race of Anterior Asia and, frequently, with the finest elements of the so-called prospector race. In America it appears in all the high cultures, with expansions towards the Prairies, etc.; necessarily, they must be the bearers of the urban traits of the Bronze Age more typical of America, even of the Iron Age, which does not exist as such in America for lack of the arrival of a blacksmith. Its human type is H-5-6, even H-7 in some individuals. Naturally, we do not maintain that they arrived in pure form but as individuals, in populations where perhaps the previous types and other unidentified types predominate. Their current descendants, for the most part, are fused with the Caucasoids of Hispanic origin (among whom the same human type also exists) and some indigenous leaders, who have conserved some of their pre-Columbian culture.
3. Last words
What we have presented here is, in our opinion, only an initial outline of what the indigenous American races really are. There is still much work to be done to reach more valid conclusions. The study of the skeletal remains (which we have not attempted to do in the present work) will then have a very prominent place.
Previously, in our books Argentina Indígena y Prehistoria Americana and Introducción a la Americanística, we have presented a first outline of what we say now, based especially on the study of numerous cranial series that we found and studied in Bolivia. Several of the things we say there are now superseded, and also, no doubt, what we say now may be superseded in later studies, but this is normal in all continued research. This is how science develops.
One last observation. Since we were children, we have learned to notice the mongoloid traits that are present among the natives, let us now learn to notice a little better the caucasoid traits that are clearly manifested in a great number of them.
Abstract
\section*{The Trans-Pacific Partnership Test}
Appendix
A port of pre-Columbian transpacific traders
Quite apart from the study carried out in the present work, completed some time ago, we have made a series of publications concerning another subject that we consider immediately related to the one treated here. Those publications, consisting of a specialized book, an extensive chapter in two others and numerous articles referring to old maps (the oldest reconstructed ones, the originals have been lost, but the reconstructions are quite old) where the American lands appear and especially the whole of South America, with its coasts and its main rivers and mountains. All that, in maps previous to Columbus, at the same time that the oldest reconstructed maps are shortly after Christ. This corresponds to the transpacific migrations referred to, and the result is that now both subjects are brought together.
In these maps, especially in that of Claudius Ptolemy -from the middle of the second century AD- where the Pacific Ocean is represented in a very reduced form (but which copies an earlier one, where it was much larger), even as a small gulf while its entire northern part disappears, that Ocean is called Sinus Magnus by Ptolemy. His world map was used by Columbus, and was seen by the King of Spain, to try to understand what Columbus intended.
There, on what is the northern coast of Peru, appears a town called Cattigara, which at first we assumed to be the present Lambayeque, but it is now evident that it was Chimbote, north of Lima. Ptolemy gives it a southern latitude of 8^(@)30^(')8^{\circ} 30^{\prime} , and Chimbote is just over 9 degrees. Further north it is, in Ptolomeo, on what is the west coast.
Mexican, the town of Aspithra, which corresponds to present-day Acapulco, at 16 degrees and minutes.
The name Cattigara would come from Sanskrit and its meaning seems to be Fortalexa costera, according to Prof. Paul Gallez, from Bahia Blanca, who has followed our interpretation. The identification of Aspithra with Acapulco was made by Dr. Gustavo Vargas Martinez, Colombian resident in Mexico, who follows the same interpretation.
Archaeological work in South Asia has studied the remains of two coastal towns, merchant ports, whose remains begin several centuries before Christ and last at least until the end of the Roman Empire. The first is Arikamendu, located in the former French colony of Pondichery, in India, off the north of the island of Ceylon, where even the remains of an important Roman circus were found; the second is in Kampuchea, in the place called Oc-eo, and there even Roman, Greek and Phoenician remains appeared. Cattigara would be a similar colony in American lands, and no doubt the same Aspithra, that is, places where local products obtained by exchange with the neighboring natives were stored; a small group of foreigners took care of that, and traders arrived in their ships from time to time.
The above was the necessary background to present our latest discovery on the subject of this work. It happened that, long ago, we read in Cieza de Leon that in ancient times an Aymara leader invaded the Altiplano, leaving from Coquimbo, and on the Island of the Sun in Titicaca destroyed a population of white men (huiracochas), exterminating them; We also read in Posnansky that the Incas had moved Chimú mitimaes (deportees) to that island, in order to weaken the recently defeated Chimúes in their homeland; he added that the Chimú surname still existed on the island. Then in the Handbook, etc., in an article by W. Bennett, we saw an illustration painted on a Mochica pottery where a combat and a defeated enemy were reproduced, an enemy that certainly had a similar aspect to the victor but at the same time showed a wide spiral moustache. Later, a friend gave us a photo of a Mochica huaco, with the representation of the enemy in defeat.
The complete figure of a prisoner destined for sacrifice, with his hands tied behind his back and a rope around his neck; the man had the same moustache as in the previous piece.
With these data we assumed that the story of the Isla del Sol corresponded to the deformed remainder of a Mochica time Saga, preserved until the Chimú time and "transferred" to the island by the deportees.
In Bolivia we had already seen much earlier, and for brief minutes, the work Cerámicas del Antiguo Perú of the Wassermann-San Blas Collection, published in Buenos Aires in 1938; we remembered some Mochica huaco-portrait figures showing the same whiskers, but we had forgotten the details and even the title of the work, so we could not deal with it in writing. More recently we found it.
There are seven or eight huaco-portraits representing these individuals with spiral mustaches, all of which belong to the Mochica II period, from slightly before and after Christ. They come from Chimbote, with only one exception, found in the Chicama valley and possibly imported. The faces represented are very different from those of the classic Mochica pieces, although the differences in the art are scarce. Since this is a collection of mostly purchased pieces, there is no information about the conditions in which they were found, only their provenance.
None of these types have a Mongoloid appearance, they are clearly Caucasoid type F in our classification (one is H, and his mustache is different), being able to say that they are a kind of Mediterranean or rather Dravidian Hindu types of white type from central and northern India, which today, largely speak Aryan languages. We could think that they could be Kalingas, which formed a kingdom with that name, on the coast of the Bay of Bengal to the south of the Ganges, and which was destroyed by the Aryan king Asoka, in the III century B.C.; the Kalingas would have arrived in Indonesia and the Philippines before the Aryans, who arrived in Indonesia in the II century A.D.
We also added another huaco-portrait of a woman (there is enough of a
The figure looks Etruscan, and it also looks like a Spanish one with the only thing missing is the mantilla. We have already talked about these figures.
We leave it to the reader to judge these faces and their moustaches, as we do not wish to influence him further with our interpretations.
We suppose that Cattigara may have existed from two or three centuries before Christ and lasted about two more. Something must have interrupted the regular arrival of the trans-Pacific traders, and the riches accumulated there excited the greed of the neighboring kinglets who attacked and plundered it, as happened with Troy; it must have been an important war and about it a Saga was made like that of Homer and representations in later Mochica huacos. And that, at least fragments, were transferred to Titicaca with the deported Chimúes.
In the same work there is another illustration that we consider very important, even for a detail, and that corresponds to a deep bowl, not to a huaco-portrait. In the half that can be seen (there must be the same on the other side) there is a boat in high relief, whose details are not represented in a clear way for our understanding of the facts shown in the relief. It is the piece number 152 of the expressed Collection, it comes from Trujillo and measures 13 cms. of diameter. The boat, normally would be interpreted as corresponding to one of the current caballitos de totora of the fishermen of the zone.
There are a few ceramics with the representation of similar vessels ( sin\sin the detail we will see), which always show their extremities very raised, with the "prow" a little higher than the "stern", at the same time that the latter is divided in two, and which end in feline or draconic heads for the three points expressed; they usually have a long bridge with a row of pitchers under it. These vessels are often interpreted as representing the moon with the "dew pitchers".
In the photo we are dealing with, it has not fallen in that, since it is said at the bottom: "Relief of boat driven by birds". It carries a great load
in curved form and on it there is a series of roundels, which must be stylizations of pitchers.
Now, what matters most: here the "prow" appears very high, raised in a curved form, while the "stern" (double) is shown very low; to the side of the "prow" there is a long board or pole, which forms an X with the supposed prow.
It is the only representation of a lateral rudder at the stern that we know of in all of pre-Columbian America, immediately comparable by its position, with the rudders (one on each side of the stern) of Egyptian, Greek, Roman, etc. ships, which lasted until the invention of the later rudder on European vessels, that is, until the 13th century and a little later. It is also much earlier in China, and may have been brought to the Mediterranean by Arab traders.
Both we and the other researchers who considered this type of representations as vessels, were in error. These boats, painted on pitchers with handle-stirrups, normally carry a large figure on them, and he looks towards the high end, for which reason we consider him the prow, without remembering that Greek, Roman, etc., boats had a very high stern and a low prow. Now the presence of the rudder clarifies things in a surprising way, by inverting those extremes.
We are before the representation of a quite big boat, of old transpacific trader, that appears very deformed for having been treated (perhaps in copy of a mural painting) by an artisan that never saw those boats, and he/she treated it as if it was a caballito (local totora raft), for that reason it was unrecognizable. In other Mochica figures, these boats do not have rudder but they do have round stone anchors at bow and stern; all these figures present, then, a double bow and a single stern, so it would seem possible that they are double boats whose sterns (not being understood) are joined at one end, like the sea lion leather boats of northern Chile. However, the fact that it is a double vessel is in contradiction with the presence of the wide bridge shown in other illustrations. It is necessary to see the original and
to photograph its other side, and also to see well the figures represented in front on the real bow, or bows, which appear quite obscured in the photograph we are dealing with.
It seems to us that we are in front of the clearest case of representation of an extra-American vessel, and of an epoch previous in more than a millennium to the Columbian voyage. Now it is necessary to gather all the known illustrations painted in Mochica huacos, to see again the pieces in the museums, etc., which we can no longer do.
CEPHALOMORPHIC VESSEL. CHIMBOT.
Height: 25.5cms.\mathbf{2 5 . 5 ~ c m s .} Color. Yellow and red.
Male head with mustache. He wears a cap and earrings. The type of nose, straight, differs from the others.
CEPHALOMORPHIC VESSEL. CHIMBOTE. Height: 24.4cms\mathbf{2 4 . 4 ~ c m s} . Color: Yellow and red.
Character's head with turban. Painted eyes, whiskers and fly.
CEPHALOMORPHIC VESSEL. CHIMBOT.
Height: 16.5 cms. Color. Pale yellow and brownish red.
Male head resting on piemas. Painted face.
ANTHROPOMORPHIC VESSEL. VALLEY OF CHICAMA.
Height: 16 cms. Color. White and brown.
Seated character, with ruff. Painted whiskers.
289. CEPHALOMORPH VESSEL. CHIMBOT.
Height: 19.5 cms. Color. Yellow, red and brown.
Male head. The neck of the vessel comes out of the skull. Painted face. Type H.
402. ANTHROPOMORPHIC VESSEL. CHIMBOTE.
Height: 21.7cms.\mathbf{2 1 . 7 ~ c m s .} Color: White and red brown.
Seated female character in white dress. Earrings, necklace and bracelets.
152. OVAL VESSEL. TRUJILLO.
Diameter: 13 cms . Red batro.
Relief of a boat driven by birds.
Painting on a Mochica pottery from the Chicama Valley, evidently later than the relief vessel, due to its overload of motifs. A bridge spans the length of the vessel, and below it appear merchants' pitchers. The drawing is made in the local art, and the ships as if they were large reed boats, with mythological additions. At the ends of both ships, balls representing stone anchors. The rudders are missing. According to Hermann Leicht.
North American Indians with Australoid-Caucasoid features. According to Birdsell, Plate 6, lower part. The first is a Paiute (or Tubatulabal) from Nevada, photographed in 1844 at the age of 98. The second is an Indian of the Muskogi tribe of the Chickasaw, considered by Neumann to be a present-day variety of the earlier type; the bald entries on his forehead stand out. Birdsell supposes them to be Amurians, which is not clear; their head is high, undoubtedly, so they would be mixed. The most important feature is the total absence of baldness in the former, despite his advanced age, which indicates an H-1 element, possibly Carpentary.
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Index
Introduction
Men with beards and mustaches in Pre-Columbian America ... 7
Who are indigenous? ... 9
Exotic minorities in a supposedly mon- goloid ... 11
Asian origin, through the Bering Strait .... 15
Oceanic and South Asian origin ... 18
First conclusions ... 21
I. Classification of American Indians
Racial and cultural background of the problem ... 27
The classification of indigenous people, according to Hrdliçka. ... 31
Imbelloni's American racial classification ... 36
The American racial classification, according to Canals Frau ... 44
Comments on previous authors ... 52
Chap. II. Bearded Americans, in various authors
A different picture: whites in America, according to P. Rivet .... 57
The "White Indians", according to Jacques de Mahieu ... 61
The "White Indians" of Paraguay, according to de Mahieu ... 68
"The mummies of white and blond 'Indians'" ... 73
Mesoamericans and their sculptures, according to Cyrus Gordon ... 76
Caucasoid traits in America, according to O. Me nghin ... 79
Chap. III. Birdsell and the origin of the Australoid Americans.
Birdsell and the origin of the Australians ... 87
Birdsell and the primitive populations of Asia ... 95
Birdsell and polyracial and biological theories, critical .... 105
The American landscape, according to Birdsell .... 120
Chap. IV. The primitive bearded men in America
The primitive bearded men in South America .... 135
The Guayaquians and their belonging to the Caucasoid Amurian race ... 138
Other bearded individuals in South America: the carpenters ... 153
Aino women and American Indian women .... 169
V. Biology and Inheritance in Native America
Our biotypological classification of human breeds .... 179
Problems in the study of race and heredity .... 190
Population Genetics ... 199
Chap. VI. Men with beards and aquiline noses, in America.
Another white race in pre-Columbian America ... 209
Men with beards and aquiline noses, in Mexico .... 213
The bearded men among the Mayas and their ancestors ... 229
Men with beards and aquiline noses, in the Andean zone ... 244
Chap. VII. The other American Indian Races
Slight initial comments and other native races ... 269
Negroid racial types in pre-Columbian America ... 273
Pygmies, or pygmoids, in indigenous America ... 282
The true Mongoloid races, in America .... 296
Comeratarionas
The purposes pursued in this work ... 303
The succession of the American Indian races ... 306 §. Last words... 311
Apromor
The test of the transpacific relationship ... 313 Bijlagrafia ............ 327
"2. Sonorid racial type. They are the Sonorids of Imbelloni, enormously enlarged in their geographic extension, at the expense of the Planids and Pueblo. The physical characteristics that, on average, can be attributed to all these peoples are the following: medium to tall stature (about 168 cm. for men and 156 cm. for women); dolicoid head (horizontal cephalic index of about 78) and short (average height index, about 81). The limbs are relatively long, which clearly distinguishes them from their calliphornid neighbors with whom they are often confused. Their face is also medium, although tending to low, as their total facial index is around 84. The nasal, around 80. All these measurements have been taken on living beings. In the skull, on the other hand, we have a series of measurements of shoshones that can serve as an example and that express: horizontal cephalic index, 76; average height index, 81; facial index, 81; nasal index, 48. It should be noted that the Sioux skulls have somewhat higher cephalic and facial indices, but are of lower average height index.
An 18th century Spanish chronicler once said: 'Seen an Indian from whatever region he may be, he has been seen a
"Any attempt, thus far, to recreate the constitution
Australian Indians related to the oldest AMERICAN POPULATION. According to Birdsell, plate 2. A and B: Indigenous 55 years old,
of the Ngadjunma tribe, in the south of the West Coast of Australia; representative model of the author's Murrayan racial type. C and D: Indigene of the Wembawemba tribe, from the middle area of the non-Murrayan, Victoria, sexagenarian, also a tfic of the above-mentioned race. E and F: 59-year-old Indian from Katanning, Wilman tribal area, far southwestern Australia, corresponding to the same race.
INDIGENOUS AINOS OF NORTH JAPAN, corresponding to the oldest American population, according to Birdsell. Plate 3. Figs. A and B: Young man from Hokkaido Island, of Amurian racial type, indistinguishable from the Murrayans of Australia. C and D: Another Aino Indian from Sakhalin Island, with Mongolian admixture, especially noticeable in the eyes. E and F: Aino with some Mongolian admixture. Even in the most mixed individual - which is the one in the center - the archaic Caucasoid features stand out well in all these individuals, due to his beard, moustache and wide hair receding hairline on the forehead, which is absent in the pure Mongoloids. In the last individual - and perhaps in the middle one - we see some more Carpathian than Amurian features, consisting of its strong bizygomatic width and its rather high head.
"The largest extant races of mankind have been.
"In light of this conclusion, it is worthwhile to make similar comparisons between Australian series that may indeed represent interbred populations, from which it is inferred that they are of unquestionably intimate genetic relationship. The first of these between C-1\mathrm{C}-1 and C-2\mathrm{C}-2 gives a minimum difference for the indices of 2.32, a value substantially higher than that found between the Santa Catalina Islanders and the general Murrayan series. Similarly comparisons between C-1\mathrm{C}-1 and C-3,C-4\mathrm{C}-3, \mathrm{C}-4 and C-5\mathrm{C}-5 and C-6\mathrm{C}-6 , give minimal differences for the five indices of 1.61,1.311.61,1.31 and 1.58 . It is significant of my argument that of these four inter-Murray comparisons, 3 exceed the minimum index differences found between my Catalina and basic Murrayan series. Only one value, that making the comparison between the Adelaide Plains and Yorke Peninsula villages shows a slightly lower value. The mean of the minimum index differences for the four comparisons between the Australian localized skulls gives a minimum difference of 1.73, which is appreciably higher than the difference of 1.47 found between my Catalina series and the Murrayan core group. This evidence could be interpreted as indicating that the inhabitants of Santa Catalina Island are more closely related to the Murrayan population of Southeast Australia than the tribal populations of the latter area are to each other. This is so patently absurd as to suggest that the method is invalidated. It has to be replaced by some technique derived directly from the established laws of population genetics. In summary, it can be said that the typological attempt
"I traveled twice to Arroyo Morotí, the first time from June 28 to July 1, 1964 and the second time from September 17 to 19, 1965. On the first trip - which I made alone - I saw seventy aborigines (Guayakíes), while on the second, made in the company of doctors Miraglia and Juste, I saw only twenty-five.
ONE OF THE OLDEST BEARDED FIGURES IN THE AMERICAS. Indigenous modeled in ceramic, of the culture Las Charcas, 2000-1500 B.C., Guatemala, found in Kaminaljuyú. National Museum of Guatemala. His face is not mongoloid, as can be seen by his straight eyes and nose; he has a good beard. From Linden-Museum, Kunst der Maya, fig. 1.
"These were isolated individuals. But in a relatively recent time has been discovered yy studied a group of
