Law of contract
合同法

Definition of contract
合同的定义

The law governing contracts in Malaysia is the Contracts Act 1950 (Act 136) (Revised 1974).
马来西亚管辖合同的法律是《1950 年合同法》（第 136 号法案）（1974 年修订）。

S. 2(h): Contract may be defined as an agreement enforceable by law.
S.2(h)：合同可以定义为依法可执行的协议。

S. 2(g): An agreement NOT ENFORCEABLE by law is VOID.
S.2(g)：法律无法强制执行的协议是无效的。

### **Offer / Proposal (S. 2(a))**
### **报价/建议(S. 2(a ))* *

An offer (or proposal) occurs when one person expresses their willingness to do or abstain from doing something with the aim of obtaining the other party’s consent. The **offeror** (promisor) is the person making the offer, while the **offeree** (promisee) is the person receiving the offer.
当一个人为了获得另一方的同意而表示愿意做或不做某事时，就会出现要约（或建议）。 **要约人**（承诺人）是提出要约的人，而**受要约人**（受约人）是接受要约的人。

### **Requirements of a Valid Offer**
### **有效报价的要求**

- **Can be express or implied**: An offer can be made in writing, orally, or implied through actions.
- **可以明示或暗示**：要约可以以书面、口头或通过行动暗示的方式提出。

- **Clear, precise, and complete**: The offer must be definite and leave no room for ambiguity.
- **清晰、准确、完整**：报价必须明确，不能有任何含糊之处。

- **Communication**: The offer must be communicated to the offeree. According to **S. 4(1)**, communication is complete when it reaches the offeree.
- **沟通**​​：要约必须传达给受要约人。根据**S。 4( 1) **，到达受要约人时通讯完成。

### **Identifying an Offer:**
### **确定报价：* *

- **Not all communications are offers**: Preliminary negotiations, options, and invitations to treat (ITT) are not considered valid offers.
- **并非所有通信都是要约**：初步谈判、选项和要约邀请 (ITT) 不被视为有效要约。

#### **Preliminary Negotiations**:
#### **初步谈判**：

Statements made during negotiations or responses to queries are not offers but mere supply of information.
谈判期间所做的声明或对询问的答复不是要约，而仅仅是信息的提供。

- **Harvey v Facey (1893)**: The defendant’s response with a price was deemed only an informational response, not an offer.
- **Harvey v Facey ( 1893)* *：被告对价格的回应仅被视为信息性回应，而非要约。

---

### **Option**:
＃＃＃ **选项**：

An **option** is the offeror’s agreement to keep the offer open for a certain period, allowing the offeree to consider or raise funds. However, the offeror can withdraw the offer anytime before acceptance, unless the offeree has provided consideration (payment or value) to keep the offer open.
**选择权**是要约人同意在一段时间内保持要约开放，允许受要约人考虑或筹集资金。然而，要约人可以在接受之前随时撤回要约，除非受要约人已提供对价（付款或价值）以保持要约开放。

- **Routledge v. Grant (1828)**: The offeror (G) withdrew an offer to sell a house after three weeks, even though the offer was originally open for six weeks. Held: G could withdraw the offer before acceptance.
- **Routledge v. Grant ( 1828)* *：要约人 (G) 在三周后撤回了出售房屋的要约，尽管该要约最初开放了六周。判决：G 可以在接受之前撤回要约。

### **Invitation to Treat (ITT)**
### **邀请治疗 (ITT)**

An ITT is not an offer but an invitation to others to make an offer, negotiate, or deal. ITTs generally have no legal consequences.
ITT 不是要约，而是邀请他人提出要约、谈判或交易。 ITT 一般不产生任何法律后果。

- **Advertisement**: Ads are typically ITTs, inviting offers from potential buyers.
- **广告**：广告通常是 ITT，邀请潜在买家出价。

- **Partridge v Crittenden (1968)**: The defendant's ad to sell wild birds was an ITT, not an offer.
- **Partridge v Crittenden ( 1968)* *：被告出售野鸟的广告是 ITT，而不是要约。

- **Exception**: In **Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. (1893)**, the ad was considered a valid offer because it included a clear promise of a reward, creating a binding contract once accepted.
- **例外**：在 **Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. ( 1893)* * 中，该广告被认为是有效的要约，因为它包含明确的奖励承诺，一旦被接受，就形成了具有约束力的合同。

- **Display of Goods**: Displaying goods in a shop is an ITT, not an offer. A customer’s selection is an offer, accepted at the counter.
- **展示商品**：在商店展示商品是一种 ITT，而不是报价。顾客的选择就是一个报价，在柜台接受。

- **Fisher v Bell (1961)**: Displaying a knife in a shop window was held to be an ITT, not an offer.
- **Fisher v Bell ( 1961)* *：在商店橱窗里展示一把刀被认为是 ITT，而不是要约。

- **Auction**: The auctioneer’s call for bids is an ITT, and bids made are offers that can be accepted or rejected.
- **拍卖**：拍卖师的招标是一项 ITT，出价是可以接受或拒绝的要约。

- **M & J Frozen Food Sdn Bhd v. Siland Sdn Bhd (1994)**: The acceptance is signaled by the fall of the hammer, creating a binding contract.
- **M & J Frozen Food Sdn Bhd v. Siland Sdn Bhd (1994)**：锤子落下即表示接受，形成具有约束力的合同。

- **Tender**: Inviting tenders is an ITT, and the submitted tenders are considered offers, which can be accepted or rejected.
- **招标**：招标是一项ITT，提交的投标被视为要约，可以接受或拒绝。

### **Termination of an Offer**
### **终止要约**

An offer can be terminated under these circumstances:
在以下情况下可以终止要约：

- **Revocation**: The offer can be revoked anytime before acceptance. In **Routledge v Grant (1828)**, the offer was revoked before acceptance.
- **撤销**：要约在接受之前可以随时撤销。在 **Routledge v Grant ( 1828) ** 中，要约在接受之前被撤销。

- **Rejection**: If the offeree rejects the offer or makes a counter-offer (e.g., **Hyde v Wrench (1840)**), the original offer is void and cannot be revived.
- **拒绝**：如果受要约人拒绝要约或提出还盘（例如，**Hyde v Wrench ( 1840)* *），则原始要约无效且无法恢复。

- **Lapse of Time**: If the offer is not accepted within the prescribed or reasonable time, it lapses. In **Ramsgate Victoria Hotel v Montefiore (1866)**, the offer to buy shares lapsed after six months due to unreasonable delay in acceptance.
- **时间失效**：如果在规定或合理的时间内未接受要约，则该要约失效。在 **Ramsgate Victoria Hotel v Montefiore ( 1866) ** 案中，由于无理拖延接受，购买股票的要约在六个月后失效。

- **Failure of a condition precedent**: If a condition must be met before acceptance, failure to meet it terminates the offer.
- **先决条件失败**：如果在接受之前必须满足某个条件，则不满足该条件将终止要约。

- **Death or insanity of the offeror**: If the offeree knows about the offeror’s death or mental incapacity, the offer is terminated.
- **要约人死亡或精神错乱**：如果受要约人知道要约人死亡或精神上丧失行为能力，则要约终止。